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ELEMENTS 


Military  Science 


BY 


Arthur  L.  AVagner, 

I^ieutenanl-Colonel  and  Assistant  Adjutant-General,  U. 
Army;  Gold  Medalist  of  the  Military  Service  Institu- 
tion of  the  United  States  ;   Author  of  "Organiza- 
tion and  Tactics,"  "  The  vService  of  Security 
and  Information,"    "The    Campaign 
of  Koniggratz,"  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


OF  THI 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


HUDSON-KIMBKRLT  PUBLISHrNG  COMPANY. 

KANSAS  CITY,  MO. 

1898. 


Copyright,  1898, 

By  HUDSON-KIMBERLY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Preface 5 

Organization  and  Tactics:— 

Organization  and  Discipline 9 

Characteristics  of  the  Three  Arms 24 

Infantry  in  Attack  and  Defense 33 

Cavalry  in  Attack  and  Defense 58 

Artillery  in  Attack  and  Defense 70 

The  Three  Arms  Combined 83 

The  Service  of  Security  and  Information: — 

The  Advance  Guard 99 

Outposts  in  General       110 

Sentinels  and  Pickets.     Supports,  Reserve.     The  Out- 
post at  Night * 121 

Outpost  Patrols.    How  Outposts  are  Posted  and  Relieved,  136 

Reconnaissance — Kinds  of  Patrols 144 

Duties  of  the  Patrol — Special  Cases  of.Reconnoitering  .  151 
Duties  of  the  Patrol — Indications  of  the  Enemy  ....  160 
Reports — Special  Patrols.   Cavalry  Patrols.    The  Cavalry 

Screen 167 

Rear  Guards "^81 

F1E1.D  Fortification.    Marches.    Supply: — 

Field  Fortification .197 

Marches  and  Supply 207 


206574 


PREFACE. 

This  little  book  is  intended  primarily  for  the  stu- 
dents of  such  of  our  colleges  as  enjoy  the  services  of 
instructors  detailed  from  the  Army.  It  is  intended, 
therefore,  for  pupils  who  are  not  familiar  with  that 
complicated  machine,  a  modern  army.  Hence  an  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  present  plainly  and  clearly, 
under  the  form  of  question  and  answer, the  main  points 
of  the  art  military.  It  has  been  thought  best  to  omit 
the  subject  of  Strategy,  as  that  is  essentially  a  study 
for  generals  rather  than  for  soldiers  and  subordinate 
commanders. 

Resting,  as  this  book  does,  on  "Organization  and 
Tactics"  and  "The  Service  of  Security  and  Informa- 
tion," it  is  thought  that  the  instructor  can  draw  upon 
these  sources  for  such  illustrations,  historical  and 
other,  as  he  may  think  suited  to  the  requirements 
of  his  classes.  By  following  this  course,  the  pupil  will 
have  before  him  at  all  times  the  essential  principles, 
while  their  application  and  illustration  will  be  fur- 
nished b}^  his  instructor.  For  the  section  on  Fortifica- 
tions I  am  indebted  to  the  "Manual  of  Military  Field 
Engineering,"  prepared  at  the  United  States  Infantry 
and  Cavalry  School. 

I  wish  here  to  express  my  thanks  to  First  Lieuten- 
ant C.  DeW.  Willcox,  7th  Artillery,  for  valuable  assist- 
ance in  the  preparation  of  the  following  pages;  indeed, 
a  great  part  of  the  preparation  of  the  work  has  been 
delegated  to  him. 

Arthur  L.  Wagner, 
Lieut- Colonel  and  Assistant  Adjutant-General. 


PART  I. 

Organization  and  Tactics. 


CHAPTER  1. 
Organization  and  Discipline. 

Q.  State  tlie  two  great  divisions  of  the  Art  of  War. 
and  define  each. 

A.  Strategy  and  Tactics.  Strategy  is  the  art  of 
moving  an  army  in  the  theater  of  war,  with  a  view  to 
placing  it  in  such  a  position  relative  to  the  enemy  as 
to  increase  the  probability  of  victory,  to  increase  the 
consequences  of  victory,  or  to  lessen  the  consequences 
of  defeat.  Tactics  is  the  art  of  disposing  and  maneu- 
vering troops  on  the  field  of  battle. 

Q.  State  and  define  other  subdivisions  of  the  Art 
of  War. 

A.  Logistics  and  Military  Engineering.  Of  these 
the  former  comprises  everything  relating  to  the  move- 
ment and  supply  of  armies,  and  the  latter  all  that  per- 
tains to  fortification  and  to  siege  operations. 

Q.     What  subdivisions  of  Tactics  are  often  made? 

A.  Minor  Tactics  and  Grand  Tactics;  the  first  re- 
lating to  the»movements  of  small  bodies  and  to  the 
tactics  of  the  respective  arms,  while  the  latter  includes 
the  combination  of  the  several  arms  and  the  handling 
of  armies  in  battles.  Tactics  may  also  be  divided  into 
Maneuver  Tactics  and  Fighting  Tactics;  the  first  deal- 
ing with  movements  by  which  troops  are  brought  into 
position  on  the  battle-field,  and  the  second  with  forma- 
tions of  attack  and  defense,  and  with  the  handling  of 
troops  in  acutal  battle. 

Q.  Why  should  Organization  and  Tactics  be  con- 
sidered together? 


10  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  Strategy  is  largely  independent  of  all  details 
of  organization,  arms,  etc.,  of  the  army,  but  Tactics 
varies  with  all  such  details.  For  this  reason  Organi- 
zation and  Tactics  should  be  treated  together. 

Q.     Define  tactical  organization. 

A.  Tactical  organization  is  the  arrangement  of  an 
army  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  its  most  prompt 
and  powerful  action  in  response  to  the  will  of  the 
commander. 

The  Line, 
(a)     Infantry. 

Q.  Upon  what  unit  should  the  organization  of  an 
army  be  based? 

A.  Upon  the  largest  body  of  troops  that  can  be 
directly  commanded  by  a  single  leader,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  able  to  appear  in  close  order  on  the  battle- 
field without  risk  of  quickly  incurring  ruinous  losses 
from  the  enemy's  fire.  This  unit  is  known  as  the 
"tactical  unit,"  and  in  our  service  is  the  battalion. 

Q.     What  is  the  best  organization  for  our  infantry? 

A.  All  things  considered,  the  best  organization  for 
our  infantry  calls  for  companies  of  one  hundred  men 
each,  formed  into  battalions  of  four  companies.  This 
organization  is  in  accord  with  our  own  war  experience 
and  with  the  conditions  of  the  modern  battle-field. 

Q.  Give  the  subdivisions  of  the  battalion  down 
to  and  including  the  squad. 

A.  We  have  first  the  company  under  the  command 
of  a  captain;  the  company  itself  is  divided  into  two 
platoons,  each  under  the  command  of  a  lieutenant;  the 
platoon  breaks  up  into  two  sections,  each  under  a  ser- 
geant; and  finally  the  sections  are  divided  into  squads 
of  eight  men  each. 


Organization  and  Discipline.  1 1 

Q.  What  organization  is  the  administrative  unit 
and  why  is  it  so  regarded? 

A.  The  administrative  unit  is  the  regiment. 
Three  (sometimes  four)  battalions  form  the  regiment. 
This  is  both  a  tactical  and  an  administrative  unit. 
Tactically  it  is  a  necessity,  for  a  brigadier  general  can 
easily  command  three  regiments  where  he  would 
find  the  control  of  nine  battalions  a  matter  of  much 
difficulty. 

Q.     What  is  the  composition  of  the  brigade? 

A.  The  brigade  is  the  largest  organization  com- 
posed exclusively  of  infantry.  In  the  United  States 
Army  it  consists  of  three  regiments,  and  has  therefore 
a  strength  in  round  numbers  of  3600  rifles.  Though 
made  up  of  only  one  arm  of  the  service,  it  almost  in- 
variably acts  in  conjunction  with  the  other  arms. 
(h)     Artillery. 

Q.  What  is  the  tactical  unit  of  the  artillery,  and 
how  many  guns  does  this  unit  contain? 

A.  The  tactical  unit  of  the  artillery  is  the  battery; 
it  usually  contains  six  guns. 

Q.  How  is  artillery  united  into  larger  organi- 
zations? 

A.  Into  battalions  of  two,  three,  or  four  batteries; 
the  battalion  of  four  batteries  being  the  best.  The 
regiment  of  artillery  is  a  purely  administrative  unit. 
(c)     Cavalry. 

Q.  What  is  the  tactical  unit  of  cavalry  in  our  own 
and  in  foreign  services? 

A.  In  most  armies  the  tactical  unit  of  cavalry  is 
the  squadron  of  150  sabers.  In  the  United  States 
Army  the  squadron  has  a  war  strength,  in  round  num- 
bers, of  400  sabers,  and  is  divided  into  four  troops. 


12  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

It  is  our  tactical  unit,  and  as  such  is  particularly  im- 
portant in  respect  of  dismounted  action. 

Q.  In  ourgeavalry,  what  kind  of  organization  is  the 
regiment,  and  of  what  does  it  consist? 

A.  In  our  service  the  cavalry  regiment  has  three 
squadrons,  and  is  both  an  administrative  and  a  tactical 
organization.  It  is  the  largest  cavalry  organization 
entirely  independent  of  the  other  arms. 

Q.  What  is  the  organization  of  foreign  cavalry 
regiments? 

A.  In  the  French  and  German  armies,  the  regi- 
ment has  five  squadrons  of  150  men  each ;  four  of  these 
go  into  the  field,  the  fifth  being  retained  as  a  regi- 
mental depot. 

Q.  State  the  composition  of  the  cavalry  brigade, 
division,  and  corps. 

A.  The  cavalry  brigade  consists  of  three  regi- 
ments, and  should  have  a  battery  of  horse~lS*tillery 
attached  to  it;  the  cavalry  division  consists  of  three 
brigades  of  cavalry  and  of  a  battalion  of  horse  artil- 
lery, while  the  cavalry  corps  has  three  divisions  and  at 
least  six  batteries  of  horse  artillery.  At  full  strength 
the  corps  would  have  in  round  numbers  33,000  men,  but 
so  great  a  force  of  cavalry  would  very  rarely  be  united 
into  one  body. 
(d)     The  Three  Arms  Comhined. 

Q.     State  the  composition  of  an  infantry  division. 

A.  The  infantry  division  is  generally  composed  of 
all  arms  of  the  service,  but  is  known  as  an  "infantry" 
division,  not  only  because  its  proportion  of  that  arm  is 
greater  than  that  of  any  other,  but  also  as  a  means  of 
distinguishing  it  from  a  division  composed  of  cavalry 
and  horse  artillery.     The  infantry  division  is  an  admin- 


Organization  and  Discipline.  13 

istrative  as  well  as  tactical  organization ;  it  consists  of 
t^ree  brigades  of  infantry,  numbered  in  each  division 
as  1st,  2d,  and  3d,  and  a  number  of  cavalry  troops  and 
batteries,  varying  according  to  circumstances.  Of 
artillery,  the  best  proportion  is  generally  a  battalion  of 
four  batteries.  The  cavalry  attached  to  a  division  is 
known  as  the  "divisional  cavalry." 

Q.  What  kind  of  unit  is  the  army  corps,  and  what 
should  it  constitute? 

A.  The  army  corps  is  the  strategical  unit.  It 
should  be  complete  in  all  its  parts  and  constitute  an 
army  in  itself,  capable  of  acting  independently  at  any 
time,  and  always  able  to  act  promptly  as  a  whole. 

Q.     What  is  the  composition  of  an  army  corps? 

A.  The  fighting  strength  of  the  army  corps  con- 
sists of  three  divisions  (numbered  in  each  corps  as  the 
1st,  2d,  and  3d),  one  or  more  regiments  of  cavalry,  and 
the  corps  artillery. 

Q.  How  is  the  command  of  the  corps  artillery 
exercised? 

A.  The  corps  artillery  is  under  the  <jontrol  of  the 
corps  commander,  and  under  the  immediate  orders  of 
the  chief  of  artillery  of  the  corps,  being  independent  of 
the  divisional  artillery.  It  may,  however,  be  united  to 
the  latter.  The  corps  artillery  consists  of  a  brigade  of 
two  battalions  each. 

Q.  What  is  the  ordinary  strength  of  an  army  corps 
in  round  numbers? 

A.  The  size  of  the  corps  is  practically  the  same  in 
all  armies,  being  everywhere  approximately  30,000 
men. 

Q.  What  considerations  govern  the  strength  of  an 
army  corps? 


14  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  A  corps  of  30,000  men  marching  on  a  single  road 
— the  usual  case — forms  a  column  about  fifteen  miles 
long.  Its  rear  is  consequently  a  day's  march  from 
the  head  of  the  column.  A  greater  strength  would 
therefore  make  the  column  so  long  that  its  head  might 
be  defeated  before  the  rear  could  arrive  on  the  field. 
The  strength  assumed  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  a 
maximum.  Considerations  of  marching  and  of  deploy- 
ment make  it  undesirable  to  have  a  corps  of  smaller 
size. 

Q.  What  considerations  govern  in  the  grouping  of 
army  corps  into  armies? 

A.  An  ''army"  should  consist  of  not  fewer  than 
three  nor  more  than  six  army  corps.  An  army  of  more 
than  six  corps  has  been  shown  by  experience  to  be  un- 
wieldy; if  of  fewer  than  three  corps,  then  the  neces- 
sity of  having  a  reserve  causes  the  unity  of  one  of 
these  to  be  broken  up. 

Q.  Upon  what  does  the  question  of  the  proportion 
of  the  three  arms  depend? 

A.  Upon  the  nature  of  the  theater  of  operations, 
the  composition  of  the  enemy's  forces,  the  special 
adaptability  of  the  people  of  the  country  to  one  arjn 
rather  than  to  another,  and  even  on  the  casualties  of 
the  campaign. 

Q.  State  the  rule  for  the  proportion  of  artillery  in 
general,  and  also  under  unfavorable  circumstances. 

A.  Generally  from  three  to  four  guns  for  every 
1000  men  of  the  other  arms.  This  proportion  would, 
however,  have  to  be  reduced  in  difficult,  thickly  wood- 
ed, or  mountainous  country,  or,  indeed,  in  any  country 
where  the  roads  are  few  and  poor.  While  the  pro- 
portion of  guns  to  infantry  cannot  be  definitely  fixed. 


Organization  and  Discipline.  15 

it  may  be  safely  prescribed  that  the  guns  with  an  army 
should  be  as  many  as  can  be  promptly  brought  upon 
the  field  of  battle  and  effectively  used  there. 

Q.  How  does  the  proportion  of  cavalry  vary,  and 
what  should  be  the  rule  with  us? 

A.  The  proportion  of  cavalry  to  the  other  arms 
varies  exceedingly.  In  our  own  case  it  ought  to  be 
such  as  to  enable  our  cavalry  speedily  to  overwhelm 
any  to  which  it  may  be  opposed,  no  matter  what  the 
proportion  may  be  to  the  other  arms. 
(e)     Special  Troops. 

Q.    What  are  special  troops? 

A.  Those  of  the  Engineer  and  of  the  Signal  Corps, 
and  of  the  Medical  and  of  the  Quartermaster  Depart- 
ments. 

Q.  What  are  the  duties  of  engineer  troops  in  the 
United  States  Army? 

A.  They  perform  the  duties  of  sappers  and  miners, 
and  of  pontoneers. 

Q.  How  should  the  bridge  train  of  our  army  be 
organized  and  handled? 

A.  Each  of  our  corps  should  have  a  battalion  of 
engineer  troops,  and  a  bridge  train  capable  of  spanning 
a  stream  300  yards  wide.  This  corps  train  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  kept  intact,  with  provision  for  uniting  the 
trains  of  the  several  corps  under  the  chief  engineer  of 
the  army  whenever  expedient. 

Q.  State  the  strength,  duties,  and  equipment  of 
the  signal  troops  with  an  army  corps. 

A.  The  signal  corps  is  charged  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  field  telegraph,  of  the  military  balloons, 
and  with  the  service  of  signalling  generally.  A  com- 
pany of  5  oflScers  and  of  175  men  should  be  attached 


16  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

to  each  corps,  and  should  be  provided  with  material 
for  50  miles  of  portable  telegraph  line. 

Q.  State  the  sanitary  organization  of  a  division 
and  its  duties. 

A.  The  sanitary  organization  of  a  division  consists 
of  one  bearer  company,  one  ambulance  company,  and 
one  field  hospital  with  accommodations  for  500  pa- 
tients, a  total  strength  of  44  medical  officers  and  274 
men,  distributed  among  the  respective  units  in  propor- 
tion to  their  relative  strength.  The  bearer  company 
establishes  a  dressing-station  and  carries  the  wounded 
to  it.  Here  these  receive  such  attendance  as  is  neces- 
sary before  their  removal  to  a  field  hospital.  The 
ambulance  company  conveys  the  wounded  to  the  field 
hospitals. 

Q.     Enumerate  the  medical  staff  of  a  corps. 

A.  Each  corps  has  a  medical  director  and  a  reserve 
of  men  and  of  material  sufficient  to  expand  the  capac- 
ity of  the  field  hospitals  to  at  least  2000  patients. 

Q.  Describe  the  purpose  and  position  of  general 
hospitals. 

A.  These  are  hospitals  quite  in  the  rear  of  the 
army,  or  at  the  base  of  operations,  to  which  the  sick 
and  wounded  are  sent  for  extended  treatment. 

Q.  What  is  the  method  employed  in  the  United 
States  Army  for  the  military  police  of  the  army? 

A.  Troops  are  detailed  for  duty  as  provost  guard, 
preference  being  given  to  regiments  and  battalions 
that  have  suffered, severely  in  action.  The  provost 
guard  of  an  army  corps  is  of  varying  size,  but  rarely 
exceeds  a  full  battalion  or  a  depleted  regiment. 

The  Train. 
Q.     What  is  the  amount  of  ammunition  with  which 


Organization  and  Discipline.  17 

the  infantry  should  be  promptly  supplied,  and  how  .is 
it  carried? 

A.  The  infantry  should  have  at  least  200  rounds 
per  man ;  of  these,  100  are  carried  on  the  person,  64  in 
the  small-arm  ammunition  wagon,  and  the  remainder 
in  the  ammunition  columns. 

*  Q.  What  is  the  amount  of  ammunition  carried  for 
the  field  batteries? 

A.  For  each  field  battery  231  rounds  per  gun  are 
carried,  as  follows:  42  in  each  limber,  and  126  in  each 
of  the  nine  caissons,  the  remainder  being  with  the  am- 
munition columns. 

Q.  What  is  tht^  amount  of  ammunition  carried  for 
the  horse  batteries? 

A.  231  rounds  per  gun,  168  being  with  the  bat- 
teries and  the  remainder  with  the  ammunition  columns. 

Q.  How  is  the  ammunition  column  commanded, 
how  divided,  and  to  what  is  it  attached? 

A.  The  ammunition  column  is  under  the  command 
of  an  artillery  officer,  and  is  attached  to  the  corps  artil- 
lery. It  is  divided  into  four  sections,  one  for  each  divi- 
sion and  one  for  the  corps  artillery. 

Q.  What  is  the  organization  of  the  corps  train, 
and  what  does  it  carry? 

A.  The  corps  train  carries  five  days'  supplies  of 
rations  and  of  forage.  It  should  ordinarily  be  divided 
into  four  parts,  three  provision  columns  and  one  forage 
column.  ^ 

Q.     What  does  the  baggage  train  carry? 

A.  The  necessary  camp  equipage  of  the  several 
headquarters. 

Q.  What  is  the  total  transportation  of  an  army 
corps  at  full  strength? 

-2- 


18  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

•  A.  More  than  1000  wagons  and  more  than  5000 
animals,  exclusive  of  wagons  and  caissons  attached  to 
bafteries. 

Q.  By  whom  should  the  service  of  the  train  be 
performed? 

A.  By  trained  quartermaster's  men;  if  these  are 
not  available,  then  by  hired  civilians  or  by  details  from 
the  line. 

The  Staff, 

Q.  What  are  the  principal  duties  of  a  commanding 
general,  and  how  is  he  relieved  of  a  part  of  them? 

A.  The  commanding  general  is  charged  with  the 
maintenance  of  the  efficiency  of  his  army  and  with  the 
proper  conduct  of  military  operations,  and  his  respon- 
sibility extends  to  a  multitude  of  details,  the  personal 
supervision  of  which  is  beyond  the  powers  of  any  one 
man — e.  g.,  supply,  equipment,  the  preparation  and 
prompt  communication  of  orders,  etc.  These  details 
are  attended  to  by  his  staff,  and  on  the  quality  of  the 
staff  of  an  army  depends  in  the  highest  degree  its 
efficiency.  • 

Q.  State  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  chief 
of  staff. 

A.  The  chief  of  staff  gives  expression  in  written 
orders  to  the  will  of  the  commander,  and  attends  to  all 
his  military  correspondence.  He  is  responsible  for  all 
the  details  involved  in  the  general  instructions  of  the 
commanding  general,  relative  to  the  marching,  camp- 
ing, and  security  of  the  army;  he  sees  to  it  that  all 
orders  given  are  properly  carried  out,  and  must  be  pre- 
pared at  any  moment  to  give  his  chief  an  accurate 
account  of  the  numbers,  position,  and  condition  of  the 
general  command. 

Q.     What  officers  should  be  under  the  command  of 


Organization  and  Discipline.  19 

the  chief  of  staff,  and  what  is  meant  by  the  military 
staff? 

A.  The  chief  of  staff  should  have  under  his  com- 
mand such  officers  of  theAdjutant-General's  and  of  the 
Inspector-GeneraTs  departments  as  may  be  necessary 
members  of  the  commander's  staff.  These,  with  the 
aides-de-camp  of  the  commanding  general,  the  chief  of 
artillery,  the  chief  or  inspector  of  cavalry,  the  chief 
engineer,  the  chief  signal  officer,  and  the  provost  mar- 
shal general,  make  up  the  military  as  distinguished 
from  the  administrative  staff. 

Q.     What  are  the  duties  of  the  provost  marshal? 

A.  He  preserves  proper  police  in  the  army,  pro- 
tects the  inhabitants  from  pillage  and  violence,  arrests 
stragglers  and  deserters,  controls  camp  followers,  and 
has  charge  of  prisoners  and  of  deserters.  He  is  in 
addition  the  chief  of  the  secret  service  and  the  com- 
manding officer  of  the  provost  guard. 

Q.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  chief  signal  officer, 
and  of  the  chiefs  of  artillery  and  of  cavalry,  and  of  the 
chief  engineef  ? 

A.  The  chief  signal  officer  has  charge  of  the  mili- 
tary telegraph,  of  signal  stations,  and  of  balloons,  and 
commands  the  signal  troops. 

The  chief  of  artillery  has  general  charge  of  the  ar- 
tillery material  of  the  arm}^,  is  inspector  of  artil- 
lery, and  is  the  principal  assistant  of  the  command- 
ing general  in  all  that  relates  to  his  arm.  He  does  not 
command,  except  when  the  artillery  of  two  or  more 
corps  is  combined  in  action. 

The  chief  of  cavalry  should  be  in  active  command 
of  all  the  cavalry  of  the  army,  and  should  habitually 
remain  in  person  with  the  force  under  his  command. 

The  chief  engineer  officer  has  duties  analogous  to 


20  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

those  of  the  chief  of  artillery.  He  has  general  charge 
of  all  engineer  operations  on  a  large  scale. 

Q.  Enumerate  the  officers  of  the  administrative 
staff,  and  state  the  duties  of  each. 

A.  As  the  name  implies,  the  administrative  staff 
has  charge  of  general  questions  of  administration,  sup- 
ply, and  equipment.     It  is  made  up  of: 

The  judge-advocate  at  the  headquarters  of  the  army, 
who  has  general  supervision  of  the  proceedings  of 
courts-martial  and  of  courts  of  inquiry,  etc. 

The  commissary  of  musters,  who  makes  all  mus- 
ters into  and  out  of  the  service,  and  exercises  general 
supervision  over  all  muster-  and  pay-rolls. 

The  chief  ordnance  officer,  who  is  charged  with  the 
supply  of  arms,  ammunition,  equipment,  etc.,  for  all 
three  arms. 

The  chief  quartermaster,  who  is  responsible  for 
forage,  transportation,  clothing,  camp  and  garrison 
equipage,  and  for  the  management  of  trains. 

The  chief  commissary  of  subsistence,  who  has 
charge  of  the  food-supply  of  the  array. 

The  chief  paymaster,  who  pays  the  army. 

The  medical  director,  who  has  charge  of  the  hos- 
pital and  ambulance  service,  and  of  everything  relat- 
ing to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

Q.  Of  what  officers  are  staffs  of  an  army  corps  and 
of  a  divisjon  composed? 

A.  Of  approximately  the  same  officers  as  those  of 
the  staff*  of  an  army.  They  are  reduced  in  number, 
however,  in  the  ratio  of  the  lesser  importance  of  their 
duties,  as  determined  by  the  smaller  number  of  men 
they  have  to  deal  with. 

Q.  Give  the  composition  of  an  infantry  division, 
and  of  an  army  corps. 


THE  DIVISION. 

* 

Non-Commis- 

sioned  Officers 

V 

CI 

and  Privates. 

bo 

ffi 

g 

o 

05 

E« 

z 

b. 

a 

S2 

o 

11 

S 

1 

11 

P 

bo 

V 

C 
3 

o 

O 

V 

0 

o 

C.  O.  and  Staff. . 

1 

22 

22 

34 

3 

28 

18 

46 

Three  Infantry 

Brigades 

405 

30 

11142 

222 

11364 

11799 

69 

258 

378 

636 

Four  Batteries,. 

22 

4 

70j 

4 

707 

733 

24 

44 

635 

635 

Bearer  Co   . .    . 

3 

60 

60 

63 

4 

12 

12 

24 

Ambulance  Co. . 

3 

.... 

72 

72 

7n 

53 

118 

18 

136 

Field  Hospital  . 

4S8 

3 
44 

11845 

40 

40 

43 

... 

7 

12 

30 
456 

42 

Grand  Total. . 

420 

12265 

12747 

24 

180 

1063 

1519 

THE  ARMY  CORPS. 


C.  O.  and 
Staff  .  . 

Three  Di- 
visions. . 

Corps  Ar- 
tillery . . 

Cavalry  . . 

Engineers. 

Signal 
Corps.. . 

Hospital 
Reserve. 

Ammuni- 
tion Col. 

Supply 
Train.... 

Horse 
Depot.. . 


Grand  Total 


15 

1314 

48 
43 
19 


3 

148lll53 


1 

132 

8 
3 
1 

1 

3 

2 

2 


Non-Conimis- 

sioned  Officers 

and  Privates. 


il 

'J  a 


35535 

1409 

1239 

601 


38784 


31 

1260 

8 
28 

7 

175 
40 
350 
774 
100 
2773 


31 

36795 

1417 

1267 

608 

175 

40 
350 

774 
100 


41557 


47 

38241 

1473 

1313 

628 

181 

43 

362 

800 

103 


43191 


120 


6 

540 

88 

7 

58 

9 

7 


37 

3189 

1386 

1359 

12 

38 

12 

332 

153 

106 


121 
469 
1 
1306  6624 


36 
1368 


40 
338 


30 

420 

2814 

10^ 


5146 


73 

4557 

1386 

1399 

350 

38 

42 

752 
2967 

206 


11770 


22  Elements  of  Military'  Science. 

Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  "fighting 
strength'^  and  the  "ration  strength"  of  a  corps? 

A.  By  "fighting  strength"  is  meant  all  the  men 
exclusive  of  officers  who  take  position  in  the  line  of 
battle  and  fight;  the  "ration  strength"  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the^^fighting  strength"  and  the  non-combatants. 
Q.  State  the  proper  rank  of  the  commanders  of  the 
different  organizations. 

A.     Of  a  company,  troop,  or  battery . .  .captain 

battalion. major 

regiment colonel 

brigade brigadier-general 

division major-general 

army  corps lieutenant-general 

army general, 

aggregation  of  armies general-in-chief , 

generalissimo,  or  captain-general 
Q.  What  is  the  necessity  for  recruitment? 
A.  Losses  from  whatsoever  source  begin  with  the 
campaign  itself,  and  generally  reach  a  maximum  at 
the  time  of  the  severest  fighting,  which  is  also  the 
period  of  greatest  fatigue  and  hardship.  Stragglers 
and  deserters  also  help  in  reducing  the  strength  of  an 
army.  Hence  the  necessity  of  recruiting  from  the  very 
outset. 

Q.  Give  the  two  general  methods  of  recruiting  an 
army. 

A.  First,  by  replacing  losses  in  each  regiment  by 
recruits  from  its  own  depot;  second,  by  adding  new 
regiments  to  the  army. 

The  first  system  prevails  in  Europe,  and  is  undoubt- 
edly the  better.  The  second  system  was  generally  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States  during  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  pernicious  in  the  extreme. 


Organization  and  Discipline.  23 

Q.     Define  discipline. 

A.  Discipline  is  that  quality  possessed  by  efficient 
soldiers  which  causes  each  to  appreciate  and  accept 
without  (juestion  the  powers  and  limitations  of  his 
rank;  which  inspires  each  with  confidence  in  the  mili- 
tary steadfastness  of  his  comrades,  and  makes  obedi- 
ence to  his  lawful  superiors  a  second  nature.  The 
object  of  discipline  is  in  every  case  the  same:  to  cause 
the  army  to  respond  to  the  will  of  the  commander. 

Q.  ^V^hat  two  general  methods  are  there  for  pro- 
moting discipline,  and  which  is  the  better? 

A.  Kewards  and  punishments;  and  of  these  the 
former  is  the  better.     In  practice  both  are  utilized. 

Q.     What  are  the  best  evidences  of  true  discipline? 

A.  The  unmurmuring  endurance  of  hardships  by 
the  soldiers  and  their  willing,  energetic,  and  persistent 
efforts  to  perform  their  whole  duty  in  the  presence  of 
the  enemy,  a  minimum  of  stragglers  on  the  march 
and  of  skulkei's  in  battle,  are  the  best  proof  of  good 
discipline. 


24  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

CHAPTER  II. 
Characteristics  of  the  Three  Arms. 

Q.     State  the  powers  and  limitations  of  infantry. 

A.  Both  numerically  and  in  the  effects  of  its  ac- 
tion the  infantry  is  the  .most  important  part  of  the 
army.  It  can  operate  on  all  kinds  of  ground,  is  equally 
adapted  to  offensive  and  to  defensive  action,  and  can 
act  either  at  a  halt  or  in  motion.  It  is,  however,  limited 
to  the  pace  of  the  individual  man,  and  its  action  is  con- 
fined to  the  range  of  tlie  rifle. 

Q.     Describe  the  arms  and  action  of  infantry. 

A.  Its  weapons  are  the  rifle  and  bayonet;  its  ac- 
tion, fire,  shock,  and  a  combination  of  these  two.  Of 
these,  flre-action  is  the  most  important,  but  it  must  be 
supplemented,  in  general,  by  real  or  threatened  shock. 
Actual  shock  is  very  rare. 

Q.     What  is  the  pace  of  infantry? 

A.  At  drill,  100  yards  to  the  minute;  on  the  march, 
about  88  yards  a  minute;  in  double  time,  this  pace  is 
increased  to  147  yards  a  minute.  The  marching  pace 
of  infantry,  in  good  condition  on  good  roads,  is  8 
miles  an  hour,  or,  including  halts,  from  2.5  to  2.75  miles 
an  hour.  The  state  of  the  weather,  the  nature  of  the 
roads,  and  other  conditions  beyond  human  control, 
may  greatly  reduce  this  rate. 

Q.     State  the  essential  qualities  of  infantry. 

A.  The  value  of  infantry  depends  on  the  effective- 
ness of  its  fire-action,  and  on  its  ability  to  avoid  de- 
structive losses  from  the  fire  of  the  enemy.  Hence  the 
infantry  soldier  must  be  carefully  trained  in.  fire  disci- 


Characteristics  of  the  Three  Arms.  25 

pline,  and  in  tactical  maneuvers;  he  must  be  armed 
with  the  magazine  rifle;  he  must  carry  at  least  100 
rounds  on  his  person;  he  must  be  equipped  with  a  ser- 
viceable intrenching  tool,  and  must  be  provided  with 
a  bayonet  as  a  weapon  of  last  resort. 

Q.     Of  wliat  does  the  action  of  cavalry  consist? 

A.  Of  shock-action,  of  dismounted  fire-action,  of 
mounted  fire-action,  and  of  detached  action. 

Q.  When  is  shock-action  of  value,  on  what  does 
it  depend,  and  liow  is  it. supplemented? 

A.  Shock-action  is  purely  offensive,  and  of  course 
implies  motion;  hence  its  eifect  depends  on  the  weight 
and  velocity  of  the  horse  and  rider,  the  horse  being  the 
real  weapon,  and  the  saber,  lance,  etc.,  only  supple- 
mentary. 

Q.     Why  should  cavalry  be  armed  with  the  carbine? 

A.  Cavalry  should  be  armed  with  the  carbine  in 
order  not  to  be  helpless  on  the  tactical  defensive,  and 
in  order  that  it  may  be  capable  of  independent  opera- 
tions. The  opportunities  of  dismounted  fire-action  are 
many;  as,  for  example,  the  seizure  and  holding  of  an 
importa-nt  point  until  the  infantry  can  come  up,  the 
quick  reinforcement  of  hard-pressed  infantry,  etc. 

Q.     When  may  mounted  fire-action  be^  used? 

A.  Mounted  fire-action  with  the  carbine  is  rare, 
but  it  may  be  used  by  skirmishers  in  pushing  back  a 
retiring  line  of  the  enemy,  or  in  covering  a  retreat 
when  pursuit  is  so  strong  as  to  make  it  unsafe  to  dis- 
mount or  inexpedient  to  charge. 

Q.  What  is  the  detached  action  of  cavalry,  and 
why  is  it  specially  important? 

A.  Detached  action  includes  all  scouting,  recon- 
noitering,  and  raiding  duty,  whether  hy  large  or  by 


26  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

small  bodies  of  cavalry,  by  a  meie  patrol,  or  even  by  a 
single  scout.  On  this  sort  of  action  depends  the  safety 
of  an  army  and  the  soundness  of  the  plans  of  the  com- 
manding general. 

Q.     Hov^  is  cavalry  divided  and  classified? 

A.  As  heavy,  medium,  and  light  cavalry;  it  is  also 
classified  according  to  arms  and  equipments,  as  cuiras- 
siers, lancers,  dragoons,  and  hussars. 

Q.  Describe  heavy  and  light  cavalry  and  their 
uses. 

A.  Heavy  cavalry  consists  of  large  men  on  large 
horses,  and  is  especially  used  for  shock-action;  light 
cavalry,  of  small  and  active  men  on  fleet  and  enduring 
horses,  for  detached  action. 

Q.     What  is  medium  cavalry? 

A.  A  mean  between  the  other  two  in  weight  and 
employment. 

Q.  Describe  the  equipment  of  the  various  classes 
of  cavalry. 

A.  Heavy  cavalry  until  recently  had  the  cuirass 
and  helmet,  but  these  are  now  discarded  except  on  oc 
casions  of  ceremony.  Hussars  are  light  cavalry. 
Lancers  are  armed  with  the  lance.  Dragoons  are 
armed  and  trained  to  fight  either  mounted  or  dis 
mounted.  All  troopers  now  have  the  carbine,  and  are 
trained  more  or  less  in  fire-action.  In  addition,  all 
the  German  cavalry,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  other 
European  cavalries,  have  the  lance. 

Q.  To  what  type  are  all  cavalries  approaching, 
and  why? 

A.  To  the  type  of  the  American  cavalryman  of 
18G4-65;  for  all  must  know  how  to  operate  independ- 
ently, and  be  able  to  recognize  and  seize  opportuni- 
ties to  fight  either  mounted  or  dismounted. 


Characteristics  of  the  Three  Arms.  27 

Q.  What  are  the  weapons  of  the  trooper  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Europe? 

A.  In  the  United  States,  the  saber,  magazine 
carbine,  and  revolver;  in  Europe,  the  lance  is  generally 
added  and  the  revolver  discarded. 

Q.  What  is  the  pace  of  cavalry  under  varying 
conditions? 

A. 

The  walk 4  miles  an  hour. 

Maneuvering  trot 8  miles  an  hour. 

Slow  trot 6  to  f>.5^nilesanhour. 

Alternate  trot  and  walk 5  miles  an  hour. 

Maneuvering  gallop 12  miles  an  hour. 

Alternate  trot  and  gallop 10  miles  an  hour. 

Full  gallop 16  miles  an  hour. 

Q.     State  the  powers  and  limitations  of  cavalry. 

A.  It  can  rapidly  transport  itself  to  the  point 
where  it  is  needed,  and  can  take  advantage  of  oppor- 
tunities that  would  vanish  before  the  infantry  could 
strike;  it  can  check  an  enemy  by  its  manifest  readiness 
to  strike;  it  can  perform  reconnaissance  work  wholly 
impossible  for  infantry,  and  without  it  adequate  pur- 
suit is  out  of  the  question.  It  is,  however,  a  very  costly 
arm,  costing  as  it  does  three  times  as  much  as  the 
infantry,  and  its  use  on  the  field  of  battle  is  rarer  than 
that  of  the  other  two  arms. 

Q.     Into  what  is  artillery  primarily  divided? 

A.     Into  heavy  and  into  light. 

Q.     Define  each  of  these. 

A.  Heavy  artillery  embraces  all  the  guns  used  in 
siege  operations  or  in  batteries  of  position;  the  latter 
being  batteries  of  heavy  guns  used  on  the  battle-field 
ro  defend  or  to  attack  very  important  points,  and  in 
vvhich  mobility  is  sacrificed  to  destructive  power. 


28  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Light  artillery  comprises  horse,  field,  and  mountain 
batteries. 

Q.  For  what  is  horse  artillery  specially  designed, 
and  what  is  its  essential  characteristic? 

A.  For  service  with  cavalry;  and  therefore  its 
essential  characteristic  is  mobility.  The  cannoneers 
are  consequently  mounted.  In  our  service  it  is  armed 
with  a  3.2-inch  breech-loading  rifle. 

Q.  What  kinds  of  batteries  are  included  in  field 
artillery? 

A.  Heavy  field  and  light  field;  the  former,  in  the 
Ignited  States,  having  the  /{.G-inch  gun,  and  the  latter 
the  3.2-inch.  In  this  sort  of  artillery  the  cannoneers 
march  by  the  guns,  or  else  are  mounted  on  the  ammu- 
nition chests  or  axle  seats. 

Q.     Describe  mountain  batteries.   . 

A.  These  are  for  use  in  mountainous  regions  or  in 
regions  where  the  roads  are  bad  and  traction  difiicult. 
In  our  service  the  gun  used  is  the  Hotchkiss  mountain 
rifle,  1.65-inch  caliber. 

Q.     What  are  the  arms  of  artillery? 

A.  The  gun  is  the  special  arm  of  the  artillery. 
The  sergeants  are  armed  with  the  saber  and  revolver, 
and  the  other  men  with  the  revolver  and  knife. 

Q.  What  is  the  pace  of  artillery  under  various 
conditions? 

A.  The  same  as  that  of  cavalry.  In  the  field  the 
trot  is  the  maneuvering  pace,  the  gallop  being  excep- 
tional. Horse  artillery  gallops  whenever  cavalry 
would  have  to  gallop. 

Q.     State  the  powers  and  limitations  of  artillery. 

A.  It  is  the  only  arm  that  can  destroy  material 
objects  at  a  distance,  and  is  largely  independent  of  the 


Characteristics  of  the  Three  Arms.  29 

personal  factor,  as  its  action  is  at  a  distance  from  the 
guns.  It  is  incapable  of  independent  action,  and  is 
limited  to  fire-action,  and  this  only  when  at  a  halt  in 
battery.  Like  the  cavalry,  it  is  expensive  and  hard  to 
train.  From  its  nature  it  is  bulky,  taking  up  a  great 
deal  of  space  on  the  march.  Lastly,  it  can  be  neu- 
tralized by  the  destruction  of  its  materiel  as  well  as  by 
that  of  its  'personnel. 

Q.  What  is  the  range  of  field  artillery,  and  into 
TNhat  zones  is  it  divided? 

A.  Under  favorable  conditions,  good  results  may 
be  expected  at  3  miles;  but,  as  a  rule,  3000  yards 
may  be  taken  as  the  extreme  effective  range.  From 
this  point  to  the  enemy,  the  field,  in  respect  of  range, 
may  be  regarded  as  composed  of  three  zones:  (1)  long 
range,  from  3000  to  2000  yards;  within  this  zone  artil- 
lery is  effective  and  has  but  little  to  fear  from  infantry 
fire;  (2)  medium  range,  2000  to  800  yards;  the  fire- 
effect  of  artillery  increases,  but  it  is  seriously  exposed 
to  the  hostile  artillery;  (3)  short  range,  within  800 
yards;  artillery  should  not  be  used  within  this  range, 
unless  its  annihilation  by  infantry  fire  is  justified  by 
the  effect  to  be  produced. 

Q.  State  the  kinds  of  artillery  fire,  and  describe 
each. 

A.  Direct  lire,  frum  guns  using  service  ch&rges, 
the  angle  of  elevation  being  less  than  15  degrees; 

Indirect  or  curved  fire,  from  guns  using  reduced 
charges,  and  from  mortars  and  howitzers  at  any  angle 
less  than  15  degrees; 

*  High-angle  fire,  from  guns,  mortars,  and  howitz- 
ers, at  any  angle  greater  than  15  degrees; 

Frontal  fire,  in  which  the  line  of  fire  is  perpendic 
ular  to  the  hostile  front; 


30  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Oblique  fire,  in  which  the  line  of  fire  is  oblique  to 
the  hostile  front; 

Enfilade  fire,  from  guns  in  the  prolongation  of  the 
enemy's  line;  if  this  fire  sweeps  the  front  of  a  defen- 
sive line,  it  is  called  flanking  fire; 

Eeverse  fire,  on  the  rear  of  the  enemy ; 

Cross  fire,  in  which  the  projectiles  from  guns  in 
difi'erent  positions  cross  one  another's  paths  on  or  in 
front  of  the  enemy's  line. 

Q.  Give  the  classification  of  shell,  and  describe 
each. 

A.  Shell  are  divided  into  common  and  torpedo. 
Common  shell  are  hollow  cast-iron  or  steel  cylinders 
with  ogival  heads,  closed  at  the  end  and  filled  with 
powder.  Torpedo  shell  are  filled  with  guncotton  or 
other  high  explosive. 

Q.     Describe  the  shrapnel. 

A.  The  shrapnel  is  a  hollow  projectile  filled  with 
bullets,  and  has  a  bursting  charge  only  just  powerful 
enough  to  burst  the  envelope  and  release  the  bullets; 
these  then  go  on  with  the  velocity  of  the  projectile  at 
the  moment  of  burst. 

Q.     Describe  the  canister. 

A.  Canister  is  a  tin  cylinder  filled  with  bullets, 
kept  in  place  by  filling  the  interstices  with  sand,  saw- 
dust, etc.  The  cylinder  is  broken  by  the  shock  of  dis- 
charge, and  the  bullets  then  scatter.  It  is  an  obsoles 
cent  projectile. 

Q.     State  the  kinds  and  uses  of  fuses. 

A.  Fuses  are  used  to  burst  the  shell  and  shrapnel. 
There  are  three  kinds : 

1.  Time  fuse,  ignited  by  the  discharge  of  the  piece, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  burn  a  certain  predetermined 


»-*    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

Of 


Characteristics  of  the  Three  Arms.  31 

length  of  time  before  the  fire  reaches  the  bursting 
charge; 

2.  Percussion  fuse,  igniting  the  bursting  charge  by 
the  shock  of  impact; 

3.  Combination  fuse,  possessing  the  properties  of 
the  two  others. 

Q.     When  should  common  shell  be  used? 

A.  They  should  be  used  to  destroy  parapets, 
houses,  and  in  general  against  all  material  objects; 
the^'  are  also  of  value  against  troops  in  mass,  and,  in 
trial  shots,  to  determine  the  range.  Th^y  are  effect- 
ive at  4000  yards. 

Q.     When  should  torpedo  or  mine  shell  be  used? 

A.     Against  troops  under  cover. 

Q.     When  and  how  should  shrapnel  be  used? 

A.  Against  troops  in  all  formations,  in  the  open 
or  under  shelter.  It  is  the  projectile  against  flesh  and 
blood.  Effective  at  3000  yards,  at  1100  and  under 
its  effects  are  absolutely  annihilating  if  the  field  be 
open  and  the  guns  skilfully  used.  It  is  burst  in  the 
air  by  a  time  fuse. 

Q.     Define  the  term  "rapid-fire"  gun. 

A.  A  rapid-fire  gun  is  any  single-barrelled  gun 
using  fixed  ammunition — that  is,  ammunition  in 
which  the  projectile,  charge,  and  primer  are  so  com- 
bined that  only  one  motion  is  necessary  in  loading. 

Q.  Define  the  term  "machine  gun,"  and  state  to 
what  use  these  guns  may  be  put. 

A.  A  machine  gun  is  any  combination  of  breech- 
loading  rifled  barrels,  using  fixed  ammunition,  grouped 
about  an  axis  or  else  disposed  horizontally,  and  loaded 
and  fired  in  succession  by  a  suitable  mechanical  con- 
trivance at  the  breech,  the  empty  cartridges  being 
automatically  ejected. 


32  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.     How  may  these  guns  be  employed? 

A.  They  should  be  placed  in  separate  batter- 
ies, not  pitted  against  artillery;  they  form,  however, 
a  part  of  the  general  artillery, command.  They  are  fre- 
quently valuable  to  cavalry  on  raids,  and  to  the  defen- 
sive in  holding  advanced  posts,  in  flanking  fronts,  etc., 
but  to  the  offensive  their  use  is  doubtful. 

Q.  What  two  kinds  of  cover  may  be  obtained  for 
field  guns? 

A.  Artificial  and  natural.  Natural  cover  is  any 
feature  of  tlie  ground  that  will  intercept  or  turn  a  pro- 
jectile, or  so  conceal  the  pieces  as  to  deceive  the  enemy 
in  respect  of  the  range.  Artificial  cover  consists  of 
ordinary  intrenchments,  of  gun-pits,  and  of  portable 
shields*. 


Infantry  in  Attach  and  in  Defense,  33 

CHAPTER  III. 
Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense. 

Q.    What  is  the  object  of  the  attack? 

A.  The  forcible  expulsion  of  the  enemy  from  his 
position.  Fire-action  alone  cannot  accomplish  this; 
hence  a  successful  attack  implies  the  ability  to  reach 
the  defender's  position.  The  object,  therefore,  of  an 
attack  formation  is  to  arrange  and  move  troops  so  as 
to  escape  destructive  losses,  and  to  reach  the  hostile 
position  with  a  force  superior  or  at  least  equal  to  that 
of  the  enemy. 

Q.  What  conditions  should  an  attack  formation 
satisfy? 

A.  1.  It  should  enable  the  troops  to  make  the 
most  effective  use  of  the  rifle. 

2.  It  should  present  the  least  favorable  target 
to  the  enemy,  and  allow  advantage  to  be  taken  of  the 
sheltering  features  of  the  ground. 

3.  It  should  admit  celerity  of  movement,  so  as  to 
shorten  the  period  of  exposure  to  the  hostile  fire. 

4.  It  should  enable  the  attack  to  deliver  a  shock 
at  the  end  of  the  fire-action. 

Q.     How  are  the  first  two  conditions  satisfied? 

A.  By  a  firing  line  of  skirmishers  or  of  squads  at 
suitable  intervals,  supported  by  troops  belonging  to 
the  same  battalion. 

Q.  W^hat  should  the  front  of  the  firing  line  be 
equal  to? 

A.  It  should  be  equal  to  the  front  of  the  battal- 
ion in  close  order.     The  extreme  firing  front  of  a  bat- 

-3- 


34  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

talion  in  a  regiment  should  not  exceed  one  and  a  half 
times  the  front  of  the  battalion  in  close  order.  In 
general  the  maximum  front  is  regulated  by  the  neces- 
sity of  control  by  the  battalion  commander;  the  min- 
imum, by  the  requirement  that  each  man  must  have 
room  enough  to  use  his  rifle  with  effect. 

Q.     How  are  losses  in  the  firing  line  replaced  ? 

A.  By  a  portion  of  the  battalion  following  as  a 
support,  at  such  distance  and  in  such  formation  as  to 
reinforce  the  firing  line  readily  without  incurring 
serious  losses  itself.  As  the  action  proceeds,  the 
distance  between  these  two  bodies  decrease  until  the 
support  is  finally  absorbed. 

Q.     How  are  the  flanks  of  the  firing  line  protected? 

A.  By  the  reserve.  Equal  in  numbers  to  the 
firing  line  and  the  support  combined,  the  reserve  is  a 
body  held  in  hand  for  use  on  either  flank  or  at  any 
part  of  the  line  that  may  be  pierced  by  a  counter-thrust 
of  the  enemy. 

Q.  As  the  attack  approaches  the  firing  line,  what 
becomes  of  the  reserve? 

A.     It  is  merged  in  the  firing  line. 

Q.  Is  the  advance  of  the  reserve  sufficient  to 
carry  forward  the  firing  line  to  the  final  assault? 

A.  As  a  rule,  not.  In  general  a  second  line  has 
to  be  called  on,  and  even  a  third  line  is  sometimes  re- 
quired to  clinch  the  results  of  attack. 

Q.     Give  the  main  divisions  of  an  attacking  force. 

A.  It  is  divided  primarily  into  firing  line,  support, 
and  reserve.  The  first  two  make  up  the  fighting  line, 
and  the  fighting  line  with  the  reserve  constitute  the 
first  line.  This  first  line  is  generally  supported  by  a 
second  line,  and  these  two  together  by  a  third. 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  35 

Q.  How  have  the  functions  of  the  skirmish  line 
changed,  what  difficulty  has  arisen  in  consequence, 
and  what  measures  have  to  be  taken  to  correct  it? 

A.  The  skirmish  line,  formerly  used  to  feel  and  to 
develop  the  enemy  or  to  cover  a  deployment,  has  now 
become  the  most  important  element,  not  only  begin- 
ning the  action,  but  carrying  it  on  to  the  end.  As 
skirmishers  are  harder  to  control  than  the  same  num- 
ber of  men  would  be  if  in  close  order,  there  has  result- 
ed an  increased  difficulty  of  command  joined  to  a  ten- 
dency on  the  part  of  the  men  to  get  out  of  hand  and  to 
waste  their  ammunition.  These  difficulties  are  reme- 
died in  a  certain  degree  by  a  subdivision  of  the  com- 
pany into  squads,  by  stringent  discipline,  and  by  care- 
ful instruction  in  fire  discipline. 

Q.  Define  fire  discipline,  and  give  the  five  rules 
required  by  it. 

.A.  Fire  discij)line  is  the  instinctive  habit,  devel- 
oped in  the  men  by  instruction  and  training,  of  com- 
mencing or  ceasing  or  relaxing  the  fire,  or  of  concen- 
trating it  upon  a  defined  object,  all  in  obedience  to  the 
will  of  the  commander.     Hence  the  following  rules: 

Never  fire  except  when  ordered,  and  then  only  the 
number  of  cartridges  indicated. 

.     Neyer  fire  after  the   command   or  signal  "Cease 
firing." 

Never  fire  except  at  the  nam^^aiilij^fitive. 

Never  fail  to  adjust  the  sight  at  the  range  named. 

Always  aim  at  the  feet  of  the  enemy. 

Q.  Is  the  observance  of  these  simple  rules  easy  in 
action? 

A.  No;  for  in  the  excitement  of  battle  the  men 
become  so  absorbed  in  the  act  of  firing  that  they  per- 


36  Elements  of  Military  Science, 

form  tlie  motions  automatically  rather  than  intelli- 
gently, and  seem  to  be  actuated  by  a  desire  to  fire  rap- 
idly rather  than  with  effect. 

Q.  Why  is  long-range  fire  generally  to  be  depre- 
cated? 

A.  Because  it  might  lead  to  exhaustion  of  ammu- 
nition before  reaching  the  most  effective  ranges. 

Q.  When  may  long-range  fire  be  forced  on  an 
assailant? 

A.  When  the  enemy  uses  it  with  effect,  under 
which  circumstances  troops  become  demoralized  un- 
less allowed  to  return  it.  It  should  stop,  though,  when 
the  reasons  for  its  employment  have  ceased  to  exist. 

Q.  When  long-range  fire  is  used  by  the  assailant, 
what  troops  should  be  charged  with  replying  to  it, 
and  what  target  should  these  troops  select? 

A.  Troops  in  close  order,  firing  against  masses  of 
the  enemy  if  possible. 

Q.  How  close  should  the  attacking  infantry  ad- 
vance before  opening  fire,  and  how  close  can  it  usually 
advance? 

A.  If  possible,  the  attacking  infantry  should  ad- 
vance to  within  SOO^yards  of  the  enemy  before  open- 
ing fire.  It  is  rarely  the  case,  however,  that  infantry 
can  get  up  to  TOQ^zgOO  yards  without  being  compelled 
to  open  fire.  This  latter  limit  it  ought  to  reach, 
though,  if  its  morale  is  good  and  it  is  well  supported 
by  its  own  artillery. 

Q.  How  must  the  attacking  infantry  obtain  pro- 
tection at  the  longer  ranges? 

A.  From  its  own  artillery,  which  is  expected  to 
keep  down  the  hostile  artillery  fire,  and  in  any  case  to 
divert  it  from  the  advancing  infantry. 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  37 

Q.  State  why  volley  firing  is  desirable,  the  objec- 
tions to  it,  when  it  is  possible,  and  what  should  be 
done  when  the  men  are  disconcerted. 

A.  Volley  firing  is  desirable,  because  the  men  are 
more  easily  kept  in  hand,  the  expenditure  of  ammuni- 
tion is  more  easily  regulated,  the  objective  of  fire  can 
be  changed  at  any  moment,  and  the  effect  on  the  en- 
emy is  more  demoralizing  than  that  of  fire  at  will. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  leader  is  not  sure  that  each 
man  has  finished  aiming,  and  the  quick  command  to 
fire  is  calculated  to  cause  an  impulsive  pull  of  the 
trigger  and  so  derange  the  aim.  At  very  close  quar- 
ters independent  fire  is  more  advantageous. 

Volley  firing  is  possible  only  when  the  men  are  cool 
enough  to  understand  and  obey  orders.  When  it  is 
noticed  that  the  men  are  disconcerted,  and  are  firing 
ragged  volleys,  the  fire  at  will  should  be  ordered. 

Q.  What  must  be  the  state  of  discipline  if  good 
results  are  to  flow  from  volley  firing? 

A.  The  men  must  be  so  trained  as  to  fire  only  the 
number  of  cartridges  indicated,  and  will,  if  the  num- 
ber be  not  indicated,  cease  firing  on  hearing  the  signal 
to  that  effect. 

Q.  When  should  rapid  fire  begin,  and  what 
should  then  be  done? 

A.  Rapid  fire  should,  if  possible,  be  postponed  un- 
til just  before  the  final  assault.  At  this  point  bay- 
onets should  be  fixed,  and  as  intense  a  fire  as  possible 
be  directed  straight  to  the  front. 

Q.  How  is  protection  from  the  enemy's  fire  to  be 
sought  at  the  shorter  ranges,  and  what  conditions 
must  cover  fulfill? 

A.     Protection  must  be  sought  in  the  use  of  nat- 


38  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

ural  cover,  such  as  ditches,  trees,  folds  of  the  ground, 
etc.;  if  there  be  no  natural  cover,  the  men  must  lie 
down.  In  all  cases  the  cover  chosen  must  be  such 
that  the  men  sheltered  by  it  can  see  the  enemy,  and 
have  an  effective  fire  on  him. 

Q.     In  regard  to  cover,  v^hat  two  things  should  the 
men  be  taught? 

A.     Not  only  to  take  advantage  of  it,  but  to  leave 
it  on  an  order  to  that  effect. 

Q.     Why  are   the  rushes  made,   what  regulates 
their  distance,  and  how  are  they  made? 

A.  Whenever  the  enemy's  fire  permits,  the  ad- 
vance should  be  uninterrupted.  But  on  arriving  with- 
in 500 — 600  yards  of  the  hostile  position,  the  fire  is  so 
hot  that  even  if  the  remaining  space  were  passed  over 
in  double  time,  the  men  w^ould  be  swept  out  of  exist- 
ence. Even  if  they  were  not,  they  would  be  so  winded 
that  they  could  not  engage  in  the  hand-to-hand  con- 
flict. The  space  is  therefore  covered  by  the  succession 
of  rushes  or  bounds.  These  give  the  men  an  opportu- 
nity to  recover  their  wind,  to  protect  themselves  by 
such  cover  as  may  be  available,  and  to  diminish  the 
effects  of  the  hostile  fire  by  the  intensity  of  their  own. 
Generally  the  length  of  a  rush  should  be  from  30  to  50 
yards,  and  it  may  be  made  either  by  the  entire  line  or 
by  a  fraction  of  it.  The  latter  is  the  better  method, 
as  the  advance  of  a  fraction  is  covered  by  the  fire  of 
its  neighbors. 

Q.  Why  should  the  fractions  of  the  line  alter- 
nating in  rushes  be  large? 

A.  If  small,  the  front  of  fire  will  be  too  restricted, 
and  there  will  be  danger  of  the  troops  in  front  receiv- 
ing fire  from  their  own  men  in  rear. 


Infantry  m  Attack  and  in  Defense.  39 

Q.  At  the  opening  of  the  fight  what  proportion  of 
the  men  should  be  in  the  firing  line? 

A.  Generally  not  more  than  one-fourth.  The  rifle 
is  most  effectively  handled  when  the  skirmish  line 
consists  of  one  man  to  each  3'ard  of  front. 

Q.  Why  should  great  care  be  taken  to  give  the 
proper  direction  to  the  firing  line  when  it  first  moves 
to  the  attack? 

A.  Because  a  change  of  direction  under  a  heavy 
fire  is  always  diflScult  and  often  impossible. 

Q.     The  firing  line  is  essentially  what? 

A.  Essentially  the  fighting  part  of  the  army;  the 
other  parts  of  the  infantry  are  merely  to  repair  its 
losses,  protect  its  flanks,  and  reinforce  it  when  nec- 
essary. 

Q.  Why  and  how  are  scouts  used  in  the  infantry 
attack? 

A.  Almost  invariably  the  ground  over  which  the 
attack  advances  is  broken,  and  contains  features  that 
are  either  shelters  or  obstacles.  Scouts  are  therefore 
sent  out  to  the  front  to  make  a  rapid  reconnaissance 
and  to  signal  information  to  the  troops  in  rear.  They 
are  sent  out  usually  as  soon  as  the  troops  arrive  with 
in  the  zone  of  artillery  fire,  preceding  the  skirmishers 
by  150  yards,  more  or  less,  and  uniting  with  the,  firing 
line  when  it  comes  to  within  800  yards  of  the  enemy. 

Q.     W^hat  is  the  two-fold  object  of  the  support? 

A.  To  protect  the  flanks  of  the  firing  line,  if  on 
the  flank  of  the  general  line,  and  to  guard  against  the 
enem^^  breaking  through  any  gaps  that  may  exist  in 
the  firing  line.  These  matters,  though,  are  secondary, 
the  paramount  function  of  the  support  being  to  reiijL-. 
force  the  firing  line. 


40  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  By  what  considerations  is  the  strength  of  the 
support  affected? 

A.  Its  strength  depends  on  the  degree  of  cover 
afforded  by  the  ground  over  which  the  advance  is 
made.  Hence  in  open  ground  the  support  should  be 
stronger  than  in  ground  offering  shelter  to  the  attack. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  advance  the  support  should 
be  equal  to  at  least  one-half  of  the  firing  line;  in  gen- 
eral the  two  are  of  the  same  strength. 

Q.  What  is  usually  the  distance  of  the  support 
from  the  firing  line  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack? 

A.  About  200  yards.  This  distance  is  not  in- 
variable, being  affected  by  circumstances  of  terrain 
and  of  fire.  For  example,  it  is  greater  on  open 
ground  than  on  ground  affording  shelter.  No  matter 
what  the  nature  of  the  ground  may  be,  the  support 
should  always  be  near  enough  to  reinforce  the  firing 
line  promptly;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  must,  if  possi- 
ble, be  far  enough  back  to  escape  serious  loss. 

Q.  How  is  the  firing  line  reinforced  from  the 
support? 

A.  The  best  method  is  to  send  forward  squads 
rather  than  single  men,  which  should,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, fill  the  gaps  of  the  firing  line.  But  this  method 
is  not  always  practicable,  and  then  the  only  thing  to 
be  done  is  to  send  forward  individual  men  to  find 
places  as  best  they  can. 

Q.  Why  is  the  choice  of  the  time  to  reinforce  the 
firing  line  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance? 

A.  If  delayed  too  long,  the  men  will  rush  forward 
singly  or  in  small  squads,  and  the  support  will,  with- 
out orders,  melt  away  into  the  firing  line.  On  the 
other  hand,  reinforcement  should  be  delayed  as  long 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  41 

as  possible,  as  the  moral  effect  is  greater  in  the  later 
than  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  fight. 

Q.     State  the  general  object  of  the  reserve. 

A.  To  guard  the  flanks  and  to  reinforce  the  firing 
line. 

Q.  How  should  the  reserve  be  formed,  and  where 
held  relatively  to  the  troops  in  front? 

A.  As  long  as  possible,  in  column;  and  held  in 
rear  of  the  center  or  of  the  most  exposed  flank. 

Q.  What  should  be  the  distance  of  the  reserve 
from  the  bodies  of  troops  in  front  at  the  beginning  of 
the  attack,  and  how  does  this  distance  change  as  the 
attack  progresses? 

A.  At  the  beginning  of  the  attack  the  reserve 
should  be  from  500  to  700  yards  from  the  firing  line. 
As  the  attack  proceeds  this  distance  diminishes,  for 
the  firing  line  halts  to  fire,  while  the  reserve  advances 
uninterruptedly. 

Q.  How  should  the  distance  of  the  reserve  from 
the  firing  line  compare  with  that  of  the  firing  line 
from  the  enemy? 

A.  It  should  always  be  less;  otherwise  the  enemy 
might  overwhelm  the  firing  line  before  the  reserve 
could  get  up. 

Q.  How  and  when  are  reinforcements  sent  for- 
ward from  the  reserve? 

A.  Rarely  by  throwing  the  reserve  bodily  into  the 
firing  line,  usually  by  feeding  it  steadily  into  the  fir- 
ing line  when  the  latter  is  about  400  yards  from  the 
enemy.  A  portion  is  always  held  in  hand  for  reinforc- 
ing just  before  the  final  assault. 

Q.  What  should  bo  the  strength  of  the  reserve  as 
compared  with  the  firing  line  and  support,  and  what 


42  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

should  the  strength  always  be  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fight? 

A.  Before  it  begins  reinforcing,  the  reserve 
should  be  equal  to  the  firing  line  and  support  com- 
bined. As  a  rule,  it  is  equal  to  all  in  front  of  it,  and 
at  the  opening  of  the  combat,  it  should  never  be  less 
than  one-fourth  of  the  entire  first  line. 

Q.     What  are  the  objects  of  the  second  line? 

A.  To  carry  the  first  line  with  it  in  the  final 
assault,  should  it  be  likely  that  a  stubborn  assault  is 
to  be  encountered,  to  guard  the  flanks  of  the  first  line, 
and  to  renew  the  fight  in  case  the  first  line  is  repulsed. 

Q.  What  is  the  strength  of  the  second  line,  its  dis- 
tance from  the  first,  and  under  whose  command 
should  it  be  placed? 

A.  Its  strength  varies  from  one- third  of  the  first 
to  equality  with  it.  At  the  beginning  of  the  attack 
it  should  be  GOO  yards  in  rear  of  the  first,  and  should 
be  under  the  command  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
first  line,  so  that  the  same  mind  that  directs  the  at- 
tack may  control  the  reinforcements  at  the  critical 
moments. 

Q.    What  are  the  duties  of  the  third  line? 

A.  The  final  assault  must  of  course  result  in 
either  success  or  failure.  In  the  former  case,  the 
troops,  disorganized  by  assault,  are  in  no  condition  to 
meet  a  counter-charge  by  the  enemy's  reserves.  It 
is  to  meet  this  counter-assault  that  the  third  line  is 
specially  intended.  Moreover,  the  third  line  holds 
the  captured  position,  which  the  assaulting  troops 
may  not  always  be  able  to  do,  and  conducts  the  pur- 
suit. In  case  of  the  repulse  of  the  attack,  the  third 
line  covers  the  re-formation  or  retreat  of  the  defeated 
troops. 


Infantry  in  Attach  and  in  Defense.  43 

Q.  Who  commands  the  third  line,  what  is  its  dis- 
tance from  the  second,  and  what  is  its  strength? 

A.  It  is  not  necessarily  under  the  command  of 
the  officer  commanding  the  other  two,  but  is  gener- 
ally under  the  immediate  control  of  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  entire  force  composing  the  three  lines. 
Its  distance  from  the  second  at  the  beginning  of  the 
attack  is  about  600  yards,  and  its  strength  varies,  be- 
ing greater  than  that  of  the  second  and  often  equal 
to  that  of  the  first. 

Q.  What  should  be  the  formation  of  a  regiment 
of  infantry  for  the  attack? 

A.  A  regiment  should  be  drawm  up  in  two  or 
three  lines.  The  maximum  front  should  not  be 
greater  than  that  of  the  regiment  in  one  line  in  close 
order,  increased  by  one-half  the  interval  between  ad- 
jacent regiments.  If  formed  in  two  lines,  the  first 
line  is  composed  of  two  battalions,  the  second  of  one; 
if  formed  in  three  lines,  each  is  composed  of  one  bat- 
talion, this  being  the  formation  generally  adopted. 
In  all  cases  the  distance  between  the  lines  is  600 
yards,  more  or  less. 

Q.  Describe  the  steps  taken  in  forming  a  regi- 
ment of  infantry  for  attack. 

A.  Just  before  entering  the  first  zone  of  artillery 
fire,  the  regiment  (being  in  route  formation)  is  formed 
front  into  line  in  three  lines.  The  colonel  directs 
the  major  commanding  the  first  battalion  to  form  for 
attack,  and  indicates  the  direction  and  object  of  the 
a^ssault.  The  major  at  once  designates  the  second 
and  third  companies  for  the  fighting  line,  and  the  first 
and  fourth  for  the  reserve,  and  orders  the  attack  form- 
ation to  be  taken.      The  captains  of  the  companies 


44  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

designated  for  the  fighting  line  each  send  forward  a 
few  scouts,  under  a  non-commissioned  officer,  who  is 
first  instructed  as  to  the  direction  and  object  of  the 
movement.  They  also  each  designate  each  two  sec- 
tions for  the  firing  line  and  two  for  the  support,  and 
when  the  scouts  have  advanced  sufficiently,  the  com- 
j)anies  are  formed  for  attack,  the  firing  line  in  close 
order,  following  the  scouts  at  a  distance  of  about  150 
yards,  the  four  sections  of  the  support,  each  in  line  in 
close  order,  following  the  firing  line  at  200  yards  dis- 
tance, and  the  two  companies  of  the  reserve,  in  sim 
ilar  formation,  following  at  a  further  distance  of  800 
yards.  The  support  and  the  reserve  are  both  so  dis- 
posed as  to  protect  the  flanks  of  the  firing  line.  The 
second  line,  in  line  of  platoon  columns  with  full  inter- 
vals, follows  the  first  at  a  distance  of  600  yards,  and 
the  third  line,  in  similar  formation,  follows  the  seco'^d 
at  the  same  distance.  ^ 

Q.  When  the  firing  line  arrives  at  about  1400 
yards  from  the  enemy,  what  tactical  formations  are 
taken,  what  further  changes  are  made  as  the  attack 
advances? 

A.  At  1400  yards,  the  firing  line  forms  lines  of 
sections,  and  so  does  the  support;  at  about  1200  yards, 
the  firing  line  forms  line  of  squads,  the  support  re- 
maining in  line  of  sections.  At  900  yards,  the  firing 
line  deploys  as  skirmishers,  the  support  forms  lines  of 
squads,  and  the  reserve  lines  of  sections. 

Q.  At  what  range  does  the  firing  line  open  fire, 
and  what  sort  of  fire  should  it  use? 

A.  At  800  yards;  volleys  chiefly  will  be  used, 
regulated  by  the  section  commanders.  Each  section 
halts  to  fire,  and  resumes  the  advance  as  soon  as  it 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  45 

Aitaek  Formation  of  <t  Res'metjt  of  Infantry 
firing  Line  about  3000  i^ds.  from  Hostile  Position. 

Scouts 

i 


Supporrs. 


M 


—     /teseryv. 


Second         Line. 


r/iird  t-ine. 

Plate  1. 


46  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Attack  formation  of  ffegimvnt  of  Infantrtf 
S)00  tfards  from  Hostile  Position. 


Scouts 

l_ 

^'rtnq  Lit 

t 
\ 

«9 


fio-serye 


Second       Li/ie. 


Third  Line, 

Plate  2. 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense,  47 

has  fired  the  designated  number  of  cartridges,  the  sec- 
tions as  nearly  as  possible  halting  and  advancing 
together. 

Q.  At  what  point  of  the  advance  will  rushes  be 
found  necessary. 

A.  At  about  500  yards;  moreover,  the  support 
will  from  now  on  be  entirely  absorbed  in  the  firing 
line,  its  place  being  taken  by  the  reserve.  The  sec- 
ond line  will  now  form  line  of  platoons,  the  third  re- 
maining unchanged. 

Q.     Describe  the  attack  from  this  point. 

A.  The  losses  of  the  firing  line  being  heavy,  it 
clings  to  cover,  and  while  holding  its  own,  seems  un- 
able to  advance.  The  battalion  commander  selects 
favorable  ground  from  which  to  make  the  assault  on 
the  enemy's  position,  and  throws  the  reserve  forward 
into  the  firing  line.  The  impetus  thus  given  carries 
the  firing  line  forward  by  rushes,  and  it  succeeds  in 
reaching  a  position  about  200  yards  in  front  of  tlie 
enemy,  where  it  kneels  or  lies  down  and  opens  rapid 
fire. 

As  soon  as  rapid  fire  is  begun,  the  second  line 
fixes  bayonets  and  moves  forward  at  double  time. 
At  a  signal  from  the  colonel  given  as  the  two  lines 
unite,  the  trumpets  sound  the  charge,  and  the  men 
rush  forward  upon  the  enemy's  position. 

The  third  line  hastens  forward,  occupies  the  cap- 
tured position,  pursues  the  retreating  enemy,  or  de- 
fends the  position  from  a  counter-charge. 

Q.  Describe  the  formation  of  a  brigade  of  infant- 
ry for  the  attack. 

A.  The  brigade  may  be  formed  in  one,  two,  or 
three  lines,   the   best  formation   undoubtedly   being 


48 


Elements  of  Military  Science. 


A/tack  FormaHoii  afa^  Refimeijt of  Infantru 
Sop  yonfs  /rvm  HogtUg  Pos'i^'on 


Firinq  Line.  -  A</*^nt'fy  i^  ^ojfies. 


"^ 


/iescrve 


I 


Second 


Third  line 

Plate  3. 


AthHik  forme, Hon  efq ^etfimmnt of  /nfanfftf 
2O0 ijards  from  Hotfile.  Pinih'on. 


fiiWfUj  I  '      iin9- 


Third 


Lnie. 


Plate  4. 


/^ffach   ^ormpT/on  ^2  Qe^irnent  of  Infant r 
The  Charqe. 


firJnj  I 


Tttird  Line.. 

Plate  5. 


50  Elements  of  Military  Science, 

that  of  regiments  side  by  side,  each  in  three  lines,  a 
formation  giving  three  battalions  in  each  line. 

Q.  Give  the  general  rules  to  be  observed  in  con- 
ducting an  infantry  attack. 

A.  (a)  Do  not  have  a  heavy  firing  line  before 
coming  within  effective  rifle  range  of  the  enemy;  then 
employ  in  that  line  as  many  men  as  can  use  their 
rifles  with  the  best  effect. 

(h)  Kegulate  the  fire  from  the  beginning  so  that 
it  may  steadily  increase  in  power  up  to  the  stage  just 
preceding  the  final  charge,  when  it  should  reach  its 
maximum  intensity. 

(c)  Guard  carefully  against  an  exhaustion  of 
ammunition. 

(d)  Avoid  a  premature  reinforcement  of  the  fir- 
ing line,  in  order  that  you  may  have  men  at  hand  to 
sustain  it  When  the  moral  effect  of  reinforcement  is 
greatest. 

(e)  Endeavor  to  prevent  your  men  from  being  in- 
fluenced by  any  panic  or  demoralization  that  may 
seize  upon  troops  supported  by  them. 

(f)  Keep  all  your  troops  except  the  firing  line  in 
column  until  considerations  of  fire-action  or  protec- 
tion from  the  enemy's  fire  demand  deployment. 

(g)  Always  endeavor  to  have  in  reserve  a  small 
body  of  formed  troops  for  the  moment  when  your 
attacking  force  is  disordered  by  its  own  success  or 
driven  back  in  defeat;  btit  do  not  keep  large  bodies 
out  of  action  for  this  purpose. 

Q.  Give  the  three  distinct  x>hases  of  the  infantry 
attack. 

A.  (a)  The  preparation,  which  consists  of  the 
reconnaissance  of  the  terrain  and  of  the  hostile  posi- 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  51 

tion,  and  of  the  use  of  artillery  and  long-range  infant- 
ry fire  to  shake  the  enemy  and  prepare  the  way  for  the 
assault. 

(bj  The  assault  proper,  which  begins  with  the  ar- 
rival of  the  infantry  at  effective  ranges,  and  ends  with 
the  final  charge  on  the  enemy's  position. 

(c)  The  completion,  which  includes  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  position  by  a  formed  body  of  troops  (gen- 
erally of  the  third  line),  and  the  re-formation  of  the 
victorious  troops  disordered  by  the  assault.  In  case 
the  assault  fails,  the  third  phase  consists  of  the  with- 
drawal of  the  attacking  troops. 

Q.  What  is  a  requisite  for  success  in  front 
attacks? 

A.  A  great  superiority  in  numbers  and  morale; 
for  the  increased  range  and  power  of  fire-arms  has 
made  front  attacks  so  costly  that  without  this  supe- 
riority tliey  are  all  but  certain  to  fail. 

Q.  What  advantages  are  gained  by  a  flank  at- 
tack? 

A.  If  the  attack  is  of  the  nature  of  a  surprise, 
the  moral  effect  of  flank  fire  is  very  great,  and  a  small 
force  may  drive  a  much  larger  one  from  a  position 
impregnable  to  assaults  from  the  front. 

Q.  Why  is  a  combination  of  front  and  of  flank 
attacks  necessary? 

A.  If  a  front  attack  alone  is  made,  it  is  likely  to 
fail;  if  a  flank  attack  alone,  the  enemy  can  meet  it  by 
a  change  of  front.  A  front  attack  is  necessary,  while 
the  real  or  decisive  attack  is  proceeding  on  the  flank. 

Q.  In  what  two  w^ays  may  a  flank  attack  be 
made? 

A.     Either  by  extending  the  front  so  as  to  overlap 


52  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

the  enemy's  line  on  one  flank,  and  then  wheeling  in 
on  the  flank  to  be  attacked,  or  by  making  a  turning 
movement. 

Q.  Define  a  turning  movement,  and  state  what 
conditions  are  necessary  to  its  success. 

A.  A  turning  movement  is  one  made  by  detach- 
ing a  force  to  make  a  detour  and  to  fall  on  the  enemy's 
flank.  To  be  successful,  it  must  be  made  out  of  the 
sight  and  beyond  the  range  of  the  enemy. 

<^.  When  should  the  troops  for  a  flank  attack  be 
concentrated  on  the  flank  to  be  attacked? 

A.  This  must  generally  be  done  after  the  enemy's 
attention  is  occupied  by  the  front  attack.  The  more 
earnestly  the  latter  is  pressed,  the  greater  the  likeli- 
hood of  diverting  the  enemy's  attention  from  the 
flank  attack. 

Q.  What  is  the  object  of  a  force  on  the  defensive, 
what  are  the  conditions  of  a  good  defense,  and  how 
are  these  conditions  best  fulfilled? 

A.  The  object  of  the  defensive  is  to  shatter  the 
attack  by  its  fire,  so  as  to  keep  him  from  reaching  the 
position  at  all,  or  if  he  does  reach  it,  to  force  him  to 
do  so  in  so  crippled  a  condition  as  to  be  easily  over- 
thrown by  a  counter-attack.  Hence,  an  effective  fire 
on  the  assailant  and  protection  from  his  fire  are  es- 
sential conditions  of  a  good  defense;  these  conditions 
are  best  satisfied  by  utilizing  natural  or  by  making 
artificial  cover,  and  by-  having  a  firing  line  of  such 
density  as  to  admit  of  the  most  effective  use  of  the 
rifle  by  each  man. 

Q.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
•defense? 

A.     The  same  as  those  of  the  attack.     As  in  the 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  53 

attack,  so  in  the  defense,  the  support  is  gradually  fed 
into  the  firing  line,  and  when  short-range  fire  is  ad- 
missible, the  reserve  pushed  wholly  or  in  part  into 
the  firing  line.  A  second  line  is  necessary,  in  case  the 
first  line  of  the  defense  is  so  crippled  as  to  be  unable 
to  oppose  the  shock  of  the  enemy. 

Q.  When  and  how  should  the  defensive  position 
be  occupied  by  the  firing  line? 

A.  As  the  success  of  the  attack  depends  largely 
on  the  assailant's  knowledge  of  the  position  of  the 
defense,  the  firing  line  should  not  be  placed  at  once 
in  full  force  upon  the  selected  position.  Usually  the 
firing  line  takes  up  its  position  when  the  enemy  is 
within  2000  yards.  The  line  is  ordinarily  not  of  uni- 
form strength  at  the  probable  points  of  attack;  there 
should  be  as  many  men  as  can  use  the  rifle  with  effect. 
Where  obstacles  exist,  the  force  may  be  smaller. 

Q.  Why  can  long-range  fire  generally  be  used 
with  more  effect  by  the  defense  than  by  the  attack? 

A.  Because  ranges  are  more  accurately  known. 
Again,  ammunition  can  be  so  much  more  easily  sup- 
plied as  to  justify  an  expense  of  cartridges  that  would 
be  impossible  for  the  attack. 

Q.  What  should  be  the  objective  of  the  defensive 
firing  line? 

A.  The  defensive  firing  line  should  direct  its  fire 
upon  the  nearest  groups  and  echelons  of  attack,  so  as 
to  impress  the  enemy  that  his  own  firing  line  is  the 
most  dangerous  place  into  which  he  can  put  himself. 
If  the  enemy  advance  by  alternate  rushes,  the  portion 
of  his  force  exposed  in  the  forward  rush  should  be  the 
objective. 

Q.  What  is  the  object  of  the  support  in  the 
defensive? 


54  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  In  general,  the  same  as  in  the  attack.  The 
position  of  the  support  cannot  be  definitely  fixed;  but, 
unless  greatly  exposed  thereby,  it  should  not  be  more 
than  7.^  to  100  yards  from  the  firing  line.  In  respect 
of  strength,  the  support  will  often,  though  not  neces- 
sarily, be  equal  in  strength  to  the  firing  line.  In  some 
cases  the  support  may  be  i)ut  into  the  firing  line  from 
the  beginning  of  the  combat. 

Q.  What  is  the  position  of  the  reserve  in  the  de- 
fensive, and  what  is  its  strength? 

A.  The  reserve  should  be  centrally  posted,  under 
shelter  if  possible,  at  about  300  yards  from  the  sup- 
port. This  distance,  however,  depends  on  the  terrain. 
The  strength  of  the  reserve  varies  inversely  with  that 
of  the  firing  line;  a  strong  and  well-sheltered  firing 
line  does  not  demand  so  strong  a  reserve  as  one  that 
is  weak  and  exposed. 

Q.     What  are  the  functions  of  the  second  line? 

A.  To  support  the  more  exposed  portions  of  the 
first  line,  to  aid  in  local  counter-attacks,  and  to^  pro- 
tect the  flanks.  It  is  generally  posted  centrally,  un- 
der shelter  if  possible,  and  at  a  distance  from  the  first 
line  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  ground;  this  dis- 
tance should  not  exceed  600  yards,  and  generally  will 
be  less. 

Q.     What  are  the  functions  of  the  third  line? 

A.  Its  chief  function  is  to  clinch  the  advantages 
due  to  the  fire  of  the  defense  by  a  vigorous  assump- 
tion of  the  offensive,  and  to  assist  the  firing  line  by 
combining  a  flank  attack  with  the  heavy  front  fire  de- 
livered upon  the  enemy. 

Q.  What  is  the  most  important  requisite  of  an 
infantry  position? 


Infantry  in  Attack,  and  in  Defense.  55 

A.  A  clear  field  of  fire  to  the  front  and  the  flanks 
for  a  distance  equal  to  the  effective  range  of  the  rifle. 
The  next  consideration  of  .importance  is  to  secure  ade- 
quate cover.  Hence  the  ideal  infantry  defensive  posi- 
tion is  furnished  by  open  ground  sloping  gently  down 
to  the  enemy,  with  a  free  sweep  of  fire  to  the  front. 

Q.     Why  are  hasty  intrenchments  used? 

A.  Because  good  natural  cover  can  rarely  be 
found.  Hence  troops  on  the  defensive  must  furnish 
artificial  cover  by  constructing  intrenchments.  These 
should  be  so  traced  as  to  allow  effective  frontal  fire 
without  exposure  to  enfilade.  When  constructed, 
they  should  be  concealed  as  much  as  possible  by  cov- 
ering the  freshly  turned  earth  with  bushes,  sod,  etc., 
and  if  possible  they  should  not  be  thrown  up  until  the 
enemy  has  defined  his  attack.  The  embankment  or 
parapet  should  \:v  from  30  to  60  inches  thick,  whence 
the  necessity  of  an  efficient  intrenching  tool. 

Q.  Aie  hasty  intrenchments  ever  of  value  on 
the  offensive? 

A.  Yes;  to  fortify  a  position  when  captured,  so 
as  to  hold  it  against  a  counter-attack. 

Q.     Compare  the  defensive  with  the  offensive. 

A.  On  the  defensive,  the  position  is  chosen  and 
the  enen»y  may  therefore  be  compelled  to  cross  open 
giound  under  heavy  fire.  Fire  discipline  is  more 
easily  maintained,  and  ammunition  more  easily  sup- 
plied. The  line,  too,  is  always  more  or  less  sheltered. 
The  oFersive  enjoys  the  inestimable  advantage  of 
luning  a  definite  plan.  It  may  deceive  the  enemy 
as  h>  the  real  point  of  attack,  thus  compelling  the  de- 
fense cii  \n  strong  at  every  point  on  which  an  attack 
may  fall.     It  implies  moral  and  numerical  superior- 


56  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

ity.  Finally,  positive  results  can  be  obtained  by  the 
offensive  and  by  the  offensive  only.  Even  the  defen- 
sive must  take  the  offensive  if  it  would  clinch  its  re- 
pulse of  the  attack  by  securing  the  advantage  thus 
gained. 

Q.  How  should  ammunition  be  supplied  on  the 
battle-field? 

A.  An  officer  should  be  detailed  in  charge  of  the 
ammunition  wagons  of  each  regiment.  These  wag- 
ons formed  into  a  regimental  park  should  not  be  more 
than  1100  yards  in  rear  of  the  firing  line;  they  should 
indeed  be  pushed  as  far  to  the  front  as  is  possible 
without  undue  exposure.  Each  wagon  when  emptied 
should  be  sent  back  to  the  nearest  ammunition  col- 
umn to  be  refilled,  and  its  place  should  be  taken  by  a 
full  wagon  without  delay.  Just  before  going  into 
action,  each  man  should  be  supplied  with  as  much 
ammunition  in  addition  to  the  amount  usually  car- 
ried as  will  fill  his  pockets  and  belts,  and  advantage 
should  be  taken  of  every  lull  or  pause  in  the  combat  to 
replenish  the  supplies  of  the  firing  line. 

Q.     Has  infantry  anything  to  fear  from  cavalry? 

A.  Good  infantry,  if  intact  and  plentifully  sup 
plied  with  ammunition,  has,  unless  completely  sur- 
prised, nothing  to  fear  from  cavalry.  A  line,  if  at- 
tacked, should  halt  and  open  fire;  a  skirmish  line 
should  rally  by  squads,  and  the  support  and  reserve, 
if  in  column,  should  form  line,  the  support  guarding 
the  flanks.  If  attacked  in  flank,  the  support  and  re- 
serve should  form  on  the  threatened  flank,  the  firing 
line  rallying  by  groups  or  by  sections. 

Q.  What  is  the  effect  of  smokeless  powder  on 
infantry  tactics? 


Infantry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  57 

A.  The  results  of  the  employment  of  smokeless 
powder  are  as  yet  speculative.  The  absence  of  smoke 
will  make  better  targets  on  both  sides.  The  general 
opinion  seems  to  be  that  the  advantage  flowing  from 
the  use  of  smokeless  powder  will  lie  chiefly  with  the 
defensive,  whose  line  will  now  be  scarcely  visible, 
whereas  formerly  it  was  clearly  defined  by  its  own 
smoke.  The  assailant,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be  con- 
stantly in  plain  view,  and  hence,  besides  thereby 
furnishing  a  better  target,  will  necessarily  disclose 
more  or  less  plainly  the  objective  of  his  attack. 


58  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Cavalry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense. 

Q.  How  is  a  charge  of  cavalry  made  in  line,  why 
are  a  support  and  a  reserve  necessary,  and  where  are 
they  posted? 

A.  A  charge  in  line  is  made  in  close  order,  boot 
to  boot,  the  forward  movement  increasing  in  rapidity 
until  it  finally  terminates  in  a  shock  delivered  at  full 
speed.  The  effect  of  the  charge  depends  on  the  co- 
hesion, weight,  and  speed  of  the  charging  force;  the 
result,  on  the  weapons  of  the  trooper  and  on  his  skill 
in  using  them. 

Whether  successful  or  not,  charging  cavalry  is 
always  disordered  by  the  shock;  hence  the  necessity 
of  a  support  to  guard  against  a  possible  counter- 
charge made  on  the  disordered  troopers.  The  sup- 
port must  be  so  posted  as  to  attack  the  enemy's  flank, 
or  to  protect  that  of  its  own  attacking  line.  The 
position  of  the  support  is  therefore  on  the  flank  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy,  or  from  which  it  can  best  operate 
against  the  enemy.  In  general,  the  support  should 
not  be  directly  behind  the  attacking  line,  lest  it  be 
ridden  down  by  the  latter  if  defeated.  As  the  sup- 
port is  usually  drawn  into  the  mellay,  there  must  be 
a  reserve  to  decide  the  victory  or  to  ward  off  counter- 
attacks. The  reserve  is  usually  echeloned  on  the  flank 
opposite  to  that  of  the  support,  unless  this  should 
be  covered  by  natural  obstacles,  when  it  may  be  on 
the  same  side  as  the  support.  In  general  the  idea  is 
that  in  any  case  the  support  and  reserve  must  relieve 


Cavo.lry  in  Attach  and  in  Defense.  59 

(he  attacking  line  of  all  apprehension  in  respect  of  its 
flanks. 

Q.  Of  what  parts  should  an  attacking  force  of 
cavalry  then  be  composed? 

A.  Of  an  attacking  line  containing  about  half  the 
whole  force;  of  a  support,  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
third  of  the  whole  force;  and  of  a  reserve,  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-sixth. 

Q.  What  should  be  the  distance  between  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  an  attacking  force  of  cavalry? 

A.  This  distance  varies  with  the  strength  of  the 
attacking  body.  In  the  case  of  a  troop,  the  support 
should  be  80  yards  from  the  attacking  line,  and  the 
reserve  not  more  than  150  from  the  support.  For  a 
brigade  or  a  division,  the  former  distance  should  be 
about  175,  and  the  latter  about  150—200  yards.  The 
inner  flank  ,of  the  support  should  be  from  50  to  75 
yards  beyond  the  outer  or  exposed  flank  of  the  attack- 
ing line,  and  the  reserve  should  be  similarly  placed  in 
respect  of  the  inner  or  protected  flank  of  the  same 
line. 

Q.  At  what  pace  should  cavalry  charge,  and  how 
is  a  charge  conducted? 

A.  The  advance  should  be  made  at  a  slow  trot 
until  the  zone  of  efi'ective  artillery  fire  is  reached, 
w^hen  the  trot  is  increased  to  its  limit  and  kept  up  un- 
til within  400  or  ()00  yards  of  the  enemy.  The  column 
then  deploys  into  line,  and  takes  the  gallop  until  with- 
in 75  or  50  yards  of  the  enemy,  when  the  charge  is 
sounded  and  the  horses  are  urged  at  full  speed  upon 
the  enemy.  When  the  attacking  line  charges,  the 
support  takes  the  full  gallop,  and  when  at  the  proper 
distance,  charges  against  a  flank  or  an  intact  organi- 


^    OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


60 


Elements  of  Military  Science. 


NORMAL  ATTACK  rORMATIOM 

or    A 
BRIGADE     OF     CAVALRY. 


1^   ^    iLd   Kb 

-Attacking  Zine 
(4  Squadrons) 


1 
1 

Support 
(I  RegimentJ 

1 
Reserve 

(2  SquaoRonS) 

Plate  0. 

Cavalry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense,  61 

zation  of  the  enemy.  The  reserve  is  not  habitually 
thrown  into  action  except  to  meet  an  unexpected 
flank  attack,  or  to  take  advantage  of  an  opening  to 
strike  the  enemy  in  flank. 

If  the  charge  succeeds,  the  enemy  is  pursued  by 
the  troopers  engaged  in  the  mellay  until  the  pursuit  can 
be  taken  up  by  the  support  and  the  reserve,  when  the 
attacking  line  re-forms,  and  itself  acts  as  a  support  to 
the  pursuing  force.  If  the  charge  be  unsuccessful,  the 
attacking  line  should  so  withdraw  as  to  avoid  collision 
with  the  support  and  the  reserve;  these  should  both 
attack  the  pursuing  force  in  flank. 

Q:  What  sort  of  ground  is  best  suited  to  a  cavalry 
charge? 

A.  Undulating  ground,  if  not  broken  by  woods, 
enclosures,  etc.,  as  such  ground  affords  considerable 
shelter  without  interfering  with  the  force  of  the  at- 
tack. A  combination  of  open  and  inclosed  ground  is 
good,  provided  passages  exist  for  passing  from  one 
open  to  another,  and  that  open  ground  suitable  for 
the  charge  is  available  immediately  in  front  of  the 
place  of  collision. 

Q.  Describe  the  use  of  ground  scouts  and  of  com- 
lat  jiatrols. 

\.  A  knowledge  of  the  ground  to  be  charged  over 
is  of  great  importance  to  the  cavalry  leader,  as  an 
obstacle  seen  too  late  may  bring  the  charge  to  naught. 
Hence  scouts  are  sent  forward  to  reconnoiter  the 
ground,  communicating  the  results  of  their  observa- 
tions to  the  commander  by  signals.  Combat  patrols, 
consisting  of  two  or  three  men  each,  are  sent  out  to 
the  flanks  to  give  timely  notice  of  threatened  attacks 
by  the  enemy. 


62  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  What  is  the  only  sort  of  cavalry  charge  to 
give  decisive  results,  and  how  are  such  charges  made? 

A .  A  charge  on  the  enemy's  flank.  These  may  be 
made  by  causing  a  portion  of  the  line  to  overlap  the 
enemy,  and  to  wheel  inward,  or  by  detaching  a  force 
to  make  a  direct  attack  on  the  flank.  The  second  case 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  surprise. 

Q.  Why  is  the  moment  when  a  cavalry  charge 
should  be  made  of  importance? 

A.  If  made  too  soon,  the  enemy  will  be  found  un- 
shaken and  unsurprised;  if  too  late,  the  confusion, 
bad  position,  or  other  unfavorable  circumstance  of  the 
enemy  will  be  found  remedied,  and  the  opportunity 
will  be  lost.  Hence  the  need  of  keen  observation, 
quick  decision,  and  firm  resolution  on  the  part  of  the 
cavalry  commander. 

Q.  'When  cavalry  charges  in  column,  what  should 
be  the  distance  between  subdivisions? 

A.  The  distance  should  be  such  as  to  allow  each 
to  give  timely  support  to  the  one  in  front,  without  be- 
ing so  close  as  to  be  compromised  by  its  defeat.  A 
charge  in  column  of  subdivisions  gives  a  succession  of 
shocks  in  the  same  place,  and  is  therefore  better  than 
a  charge  in  line,  unless  the  latter  includes  a  flank 
attack. 

Q.  How  should  the  charge  in  column  of  fours  be 
made? 

A.  Either  from  a  close-order  line  or  from  an 
extended-order  line,  troopers  using  revolvers,  and 
charging  in  couples  with  intervals  of  about  six  yards. 

Q.  Why  will  the  number  of  cavalry  battles  be 
probably  greater  in  the  future  than  in  the  past? 

A.     The  success  of  the  campaign  depends  on  the 


Cavalry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  63 

proper  performance  of  screening  and  reconnoitering 
duty,  and  this  in  turn  depends  on  the  superiority  of 
one  cavalry  over  the  other.  Hence  each  army  will 
at  the  outset  strive  to  overthrow  the  mounted  force 
of  its  opponent,  and,  naturally,  the  attempt  to  break 
through  the  screen  will  lead  to  many  mounted  en- 
counters. Further,  during  regular  battles,  the  cav- 
alry and  the  horse  artillery  will  try  to  get  on  the 
flanks  or  rear  of  the  enemy. 

Lastly,  almost  every  great  battle  will  close  with  a 
cavalry  battle  between  the  covering  and  the  pursuing 
cavalries. 

Q.  When  are  the  best  opportunities  offered  for  an 
attack  upon  the  enemy's  cavalry? 

A.  When  the  enemy  is  issuing  from  a  defile  and 
presents  a  narrow  front;  when  it  can  be  surprised  in 
column  formation ;  when  it  can  be  taken  in  flank  while 
charging  another  body,  when  exhausted;  when  it  is 
changing  formation  or  else  is  on  ground  unfavorable 
to  its  deployment. 

Q.  By  what  bodies  will  the  combats  of  cavalry 
with  cavalry  generally  be  fought? 

A.  By  the  cavalry  divisions,  as  the  corps  cavalry 
will  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  other  troops  of 
the  corps. 

Q.  State  the  different  circumstances  under  which 
cavalry  may  be  used  with  effect  in  charging  infantry. 

A.  (a)  When  the  infantry  is  demoralized  or  of 
poor  quality. 

(h)     W^hen  the  infantry  can  be  taken  by  surprise. 

(c)  When  the  infantry  is  out  of  ammunition. 

(d)  When  the  infantry  is  broken  by  the  fire  of 
the  opposing  infantry  or  artillery. 


64  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

(e)  When  the  infantry  is  engaged  with  the  oppos- 
ing infantry. 

(f)  To  compel  the  infantry  to  take  up  such  a 
formation  as  to  present  a  good  target  to  the  fire  of 
the  opposing  infantry  or  artillery. 

(g)  To  check  an  attack  of  the  enemy's  infantry 
and  gain  time  for  the  arrival  of  reinforcements. 

(h)  When  the  infantry  is  exhausted  by  a  pro- 
longed contest  with  the  hostile  infantry. 

(i)     When  the  infantry  is  disordered  in  retreat. 

(j)     In  covering  a  retreat. 

(h)  To  cut  through  a  surrounding  force  of  hos- 
tile infantry. 

Q.  What  is  the  effect  on  infantry  of  a  threatened 
attack  by  cavalry? 

A.  Cavalry  may  thus  sometimes  check  the  ad- 
vance or  attack  of  infantry. 

Q.  How  should  cavalry  be  formed  to  attack 
infantry? 

A.  The  formation  of  cavalry  for  this  purpose  de- 
pends on  that  of  the  infantry  itself.  Against  infant- 
ry in  masses  or  in  line  in  clofee  order,  line  of  columns 
or  successive  lines  at  about  200  yards  distance  should 
be  used.  When  the  infantry  is  in  extended  order,  it 
should  be  charged  by  foragers,  supported  by  about 
half  the  force  in  close  order.  In  charging  infantry, 
cavalry  should  take  the  shortest  line  and  endeavor 
to  take  the  infantry  in  flank.  In  any  case,  cavalry 
should  be  careful  not  to  mask  the  fire  of  its  own 
infantry  and  artillery. 

Q.  State  the  three  general  cases  in  which  artil- 
lery may  be  attacked  by  cavalry. 

A.  (a)  When  artillery,  hurried  into  action,  is 
unsupported  by  other  arms. 


Cavalry  in  Alhicli   and  in  Defense.  65 

(h)  When  the  infaulry  supports  have  been  driven 
back,  or  have  exhausted  their  ammunition,  and  the 
artillery  stands  alone. 

(c)  When  artillery  can  be  surprised,  especially 
while  limbering  or  unlimbering. 

Q.  How  should  cavalry  be  formed  for  the  attack 
of  artillery? 

A.  In  attacking  a  battery,  the  cavalry  forms  in 
two  or  three  parts;  the  attacking  line  charges  as  for- 
agers, divides  near  the  center  as  it  approaches,  and 
assaults  the  battery  on  both  Hanks.  The  support  ad- 
vances and  secures  the  battery;  the  reserve  follows 
in  close  order  to  meet  a  counter-attack,  if  made.  A 
battery  captured  should  be  carried  of¥,  but  if  this  be 
impossible,  the  guns  should  be  disabled. 

Q.  Enumerate  the  purposes  for  which  dismount- 
ed fire  action  may  be  usefully  employed. 

A.  (a)  To  drive  away  or  capture  small  bodies  of 
infantry  or  partisan  troops,  wiio  endeavor  to  check 
the  ijrogress  of  raiding  or  reconnoitering  cavalry. 

(h)  To  force  a  defile  which  blocks  an  advance, 
and  thus  avoid  a  delay. 

(c)  To  seize  and  hold  localities  until  the  arrival 
of  .the  infantry. 

(d)  To  reinforce  infantry  in  emergencies. 

(e)  To  fill  up  a  gap  in  the  line  of  battle. 

(f)  In  an  enclosed,  wooded,  or  broken  country, 
where  mounted  action  is  impracticable. 

(g)  In  covering  a  retreat. 

(h)  When  exhausted  or  defeated  cavalry  is  called 
upon  to  resist  a  charge  of  fresh  cavalry. 

(i)     In  conjunction  with  cavalry  mounted. 

(j)     Whenever  cavalry,  through  force  of  circum- 

-5- 


60  Ele^nents  of  Military  Science. 

stances,  is  deprived  of  the  power  of  usiug  mounted 
action. 

Q.  How  are  dismounted  men  maneuvered  and 
fought? 

A.  In  essentially  the  same  manner  as  infantry, 
with  a  skirmish  line,  support,  and  reserve,  except  that 
a  mounted  reserve  is  kept  for  emergencies.  On  the 
offensive  the  men  should  get  up, as  close  as  possible 
before  dismounting;  at  least,  they  should  get  up  to  the 
zone  of  effective  artilkry  fire.  The  position  captured, 
the  mounted  reserv^e  pursues  the  enemy.  When  dis- 
mounted cavalry  is  on  the  defensive,  all  the  reserve 
should  be  put  in  the  firing  line,  as  soon  as  the  enemy's 
attack  is  develaped.  If  the  attack  be  by  a  superior 
force,  the  action  should  bo  discontinued  in  suffi(tient 
time  to  allow  the  defender  to  retire  and  mount. 

Q.  Of  what  value  is  dismounted  fire-action  to 
cavalry? 

A.  It  adds  immeasurably  to  the  independence 
and  fighting  power  of  cavalry;  but  it  is  only  the  com- 
plement of  mounted  action,  and  must  not  be  regarded 
as  the  chief  use  of  cavalry. 

Q.     When  may  mounted  fire-action  be  used? 

A.  (a)  As  a  means  of  temporary  resistance  by 
small  scouting  parties,  or  by  the  point  and  flankers  of 
an  advance  guard. 

(h)  In  the  pursuit  of  a  beaten  enemy,  when  a 
mounted  charge  is  impracticable. 

(c)  In  covering  a  retreat  when  the  pursuit  is  so 
active  and  so  strong  as  to  make  it  unsafe  to  dismount 
and  inexpedient  to  charge. 

(d)  W^hen  the  opposing  cavalry  is  charging  over 
heavv  and  unfavorable  ground. 


Cavalry  in  Attach  and  in  Defense.  67 

Q.  What  are  the  objects  for  which  cavalry  raids 
are  uudertaken? 

A.  (a)  To  threaten  or  to  destroy  the  communi- 
cations of  the  enemy,  thus  compelling  him  to  weaken 
himself  for  their  protection,  or  delay  his  advance. 

(h)  To  check  an  invading  army  by  operations 
against  its  communications  and  the  capture  of  its 
immediate  base  of  supplies. 

(c)  Q'o  make  a  diversion  in  favor  of  the  main 
army  by  drawing  off  troops  In  pursuit  of  the  raiding 
force. 

(d)  To  gain  information. 

(e)  To  cause  alarm  in  the  enemy's  country,  and" 
thus  destroy  confidence  in  the  enemy's  commanding 
general,  or  create  a  sentiment  unfavorable  to  the 
l)rosecution  of  the  war. 

(f)  To  interfere  with  the  mobilization  and  con- 
centration of  tlie  enemy's  forces  at  the  beginning  of  a 
campaign. 

(g)  To  devastate  the  enemy's  country  and  de- 
stroy his  resources. 

(h)     To  effect  the  release  of  prisoners. 

Q.  When  are  raids  practicable,  and  why  should 
they  never  be  undertaken  without  an  important 
object? 

A.  Raids  are  rarely  practicable  in  the  enemy's 
country  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  population. 
As  thej'  wear  out  the  horses,  impose  great  fatigue 
upon  the  men,  and  tend  to  demoralize  them  by  breed- 
ing a  spirit  of  depredation,  so  they  should  not  be  un- 
dertaken unless  the  object  justifies  all  the  risks  in- 
volved- Among  these  not  the  least  is  that  of  being 
absent  from  the  army  when  a  decisive  battle  is  to  be 
fought. 


68  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  Describe  the  composition  and  preparation  of 
a  raiding  force. 

A.  A  raiding  force  should  be  composed  of  well- 
mounted,  well-disciplined,  self-reliant  troops,  com- 
plete organizations  being  used  instead  of  detachments 
from  various  ones,  and  should  usually  vary  in  number 
from  1000  to  3000  men.  For  quick  work,  requiring 
secrecy,  small  bodies  are  best;  for  devastating  a  large 
region  and  destroying  resources,  a  large  force  may  be 
used.  As  a  rule,  no  infantry  should  form  a  part  of 
a  raiding  force;  mountain  artillery  may  frequently  be 
used  to  great  advantage,  in  the  proportion  of  two 
guns  to  a  1000  men.  If  not  available,  then  horse  artil- 
lery may  be  employed.  A  raiding  force  should  live 
on  the  country,  but  rations  for  a  few  days  ought  to  be 
carried  for  emergencies.  Each  trooper  might  be  re- 
quired to  carry  as  many  as  five  days'  rations  on  his 
person,  and  always  200  rounds  of  ammunition  and  a 
pair  of  spare  horseshoes.  The  objective  of  the  raid 
should  in  all  cases  be  clearly  determined  in  advance, 
and  the  commander  should  be  a  man  competent  to 
attain  it. 

Q.  What  constructions  should  a  raiding  force 
seek  to  destroy? 

A.  Bridges,  railways,  rolling  stock,  tunnels,  tele 
graph  lines,  etc. 

Q.  How  does  the  tactics  of  cavalry  compare  with 
that  of  any  other  arm? 

A.  It  is  more  varied  than  that  of  any  other  arm. 
It  embraces  shock-action  in  line  and  in  column;  fire- 
action  mounted  and  on  foot;  a  combination  of  fire-  and 
shock-action  either  mounted  or  dismounted;  and  the 
simultaneous  use  of  fire-action,  dismounted  and  shock- 


Cavalry  in  Attach  and  in  Defense.  69 

action  mounted  by  ditferent  parts  of  the  same  com- 
mand. The  arms,  training,  and  tactical  formations 
of  modern  cavalry  adapt  it  to  use  on  varied  ground, 
and  in  every  phase  of  the  battle,  and  sustain  General 
Kilpatrick's  apothegm,  that  ''cavalry  can  fight  any- 
where except  at  sea.'^ 


70  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Artillery  in  Attack  and  in  i)Eri:N8E. 

Q.     Why  is  artillery  indispensable  to  an  attack? 

A.  First,  to  oppose  the  guns  of  the  defense,  so 
that  the  infantry  may  take  np  at  comparative  leisure 
a  suitable  formation  for  attack. 

Second,  to  protect  the  infantry  during  the  attack, 
from  the  fire  of  the  opposing  batteries,  by  delivering 
such  a  fire  upon  these  as  to  compel  them  to  turn  their 
attention  from  the  foot  troops  to  the  assailant's  guns. 

Q.  What  further  use  is  made  of  artillery  in  the 
attack? 

A.  The  defender's  batteries  are  scarcely  ever 
permanently  silenced;  it  follows,  therefore,  as  the  at- 
tack proceeds,  that  the  assailing  infantry  will  still 
have  to  meet  the  fire  of  hostile  guns.  It  is  upon  these 
that  the  guns  of  the  attack  bestow  their  attention,  in 
order  to  crush  them,  if  possible,  before  the  assailants 
reach  the  position,  and  in  any  case  to  make  it  possi- 
ble to  reach  effective  rifle  range  without  undue  loss. 
As  the  attack  gets  closer  and  closer  to  the  enemy,  the 
artillery  fires  over  the  heads  of  the  assailants  as  long 
as  it  may  do  so  without  injury  to  its  own  side. 

Q.  Of  what  value  is  artillery  in  the  case  of  a  re- 
pulse? in  the  case  of  a  success? 

A.  In  the  case  of  a  repulse,  it  forms  a  solid  sup- 
port on  which  the  infantry  can  re-form;  in  the  case 
of  a  success,  the  batteries  are  pushed  forward  to  the 
captured  position  in  order  to  check  any  counter- 
attack. 


Arlillcry  in  A  Had-  (ind  in.  Defense.  71 

i}.  How  does  the  tactics  of  artillery  compare  witli 
that  of  the  other  arms? 

A.  It  is  far  simpler,  for  artillery  always  fights 
ill  line;  the  advance  in  coluiun  of  route,  and  the  de- 
l)loyments  therefrom,  with  the  advance  in  line,  com- 
l)rise  all  essential  mamnivers.  In  acticm,  the  interval 
between  gnns  should  never  be  less  than  10  yards,  as  a 
les«*er  int(n-val  makes  the  battery  too  good  a  target, 
nor  more  than  40,  as  a  greater  interval  would  put  the 
giiiis  out  of  the  direct  control  of  the  battery  com- 
mander. 

Q.  What  are  the  recjuisites  of  a  good  artillery 
l)osition? 

A.  As  artillery  can  act  only  by  the  efficiency  of 
its  fire,  a  good  position  should  furnish  a  clear  range 
to  the  front  and  flanks  as  far  as  the  limit  of  effective 
fire.  The  general  position  should  be  at  right  angles 
\i)  the  line  of  fire,  and  should  have  enough  room  not 
only  for  the  guns  to  be  immediately  placed  in  posi- 
tion, but  also  for  the  others  to  be  brought  uy)  later. 
There  should  be  easy  communication  to  the  front  and 
rear,  and  no  cover  for  hostile  infantry  skirmishers 
within  1000  yards  of  the  line  of  guns  anywhere  in 
front.  The  flanks  should  be  carefully  protected,  as 
these  are  the  specially  weak  points  of  an  artillery 
liiH\  The  indispensahie  condition  to  be  satisfied  by 
any  position  is  freedom  of  movement  to  the  front. 

Q.  Describe  briefly  the  successive  positions  to  be 
occupied  by  artillery  in  the  attack. 

A.  The  first  position  occupied  is  called  the  recon- 
noitering  position,  and  is  about  3000  yards  from  the 
enemy.  It  should,  if  possible,  be  occupied  unseen  by 
the  enemy  until  fire  is  opened.     Such  a  position  may 


72  .Elements  of  AI Hilary  Science. 

sometimes  be  found  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  first  zone. 
In  general,  the  position  selected  should  be  as  near  the 
enemy  as  i)ossible,  so  long  as  there  is  little  or  no  dan- 
ger of  an  attack  by  the  hostile  infantry  too  severe  to 
be  repelled  by  the  guns  or  their  escort. 

From  the  reconnoitering  position,  fire  is  opened 
on  the  enemy,  under  the  protection  of  which  the  in- 
fantry deploys  and  the  commander  makes  his  phm  of 
attack.  Every  attempt  is  made  by  the  artillery  of 
each  side  to  overwhelm  that  of  the  other,  and  hence 
the  artillery  duel  begins  in  this  position. 

The  second  position  is  called  the  ''duel"  position, 
and  is  2000  yards,  more  or  less,  from  the  enemy.  This 
position  is  assumed  as  soon  as  the  sui)porting  infant- 
r}^  can  be  pushed  up;  it  is  from  this  position  that  the 
main  fire  is  kept  up  against  the  hostile  batteries. 

The  third  position  is  the  supporting  position;  it  is 
about  1000  yards  from  the  enemy  and  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  the  guns  now  directly  support  the 
infantry  attack  proper.  It  should  be  carefully  borne 
in  mind  that  all  the  distances  mentioned  are  subject 
to  variations  depending  on  the  circumstances  of  each 
separate  case. 

Q.  How  is  the  battery  subdivided  for  combat 
purposes? 

A.  Into,  first,  the  "fighting  battery"  or  first  line, 
composed  of  all  the  guns  and  of  3  caissons;  second, 
the  reserve,  comprising  the  remaining  caissons,  0 
in  number,  spare  horses,  and  as  many  of  the  spare  men 
as  can  be  accommodated  on  the  caissons  and  spare 
horses  for  rapid  movements;  and  third,  the  train,  made 
up  of  the  remaining  spare  men,  of  the  battery  wagon 
and  forage,  and  store  wagon. 


Artilhry  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  78 

The  reserve  and  train  feed  the  fighting  battery  dur- 
ing the  combat. 

Q.  Slionld  the  artillery  fire  over  the  heads  of  the 
infantry  of  its  own  side? 

A.  Not  if  it  can  be  helped,  but  sometimes  this 
measure  is  necessary. 

(}.  Of  what  does  the  fire  tactics  of  artillery 
consist? 

A.  Of  the  art  of  hitting  the  eiiemy.  It  is  requi- 
site, therefore,  in  order  to  obtain  the  enormous  effect 
of  which  this  arm  is  capable,  that  it  have  a  definite  ob- 
jective upon  which  to  direct  its  fire.  Hence,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  ^'the  fire  of  artillery  is  directed  against  that 
arm  of  the.  enemy  which  at  the  time  is  predominant, 
or  wiiich  is  capable  of  infiicting  the  greatest  loss  on 
the  infantiy  or  cavalry  that  the  artillery  is  support- 
ing.'' (Tnited  States  Light  Artillery  Drill  Regu- 
lations.) 

Q.     How  is  artillery  fire  classed  in  respect  of  rate? 

A.  As  slow, ordinary,  and  rapid.  In  slow  fire  there 
is  no  specified  interval  of  time  between  the  firing  of  the 
guns,  all  being  fired  in  succession  by  the  command 
of  the  battery  commander.  The  rate  of  slow  fire  is 
variable,  but  is  generally  from  ^(^  seconds  to  1  minute 
for  each  shot.  Ordinary  fire  is  at  the  rate  of  from  15 
to  20  seconds  between  discharges,  and  is  the  fire  hab 
itually  used.  Rapid  fire  is  at  the  rate  of  7  seconds 
to  the  round.  It  is  used  against  artillery  in  move- 
ment; by  one  echelon  of  artillery  in  covering  the  ad- 
vance of  another;  when  the  decisive  infantry  attack  is 
about  to  take  place;  to  repel  infantry  at  close  range; 
and,  generally,  when  the  opportunity  for  an  effective 
fire  is  very  fleeting  or  when  the  target  presented  is 
verv  favorable. 


74  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  AVluit  is  the  great  objective  of  the  artillery  of 
both  the  defense  and  the  attaclv? 

A.  To  shatter  the  op])osing  infantry.  This  re- 
quires that  the  opposing  artillery  should  first  be  over- 
mastered; if  the  assailing  batteries  succeed  in  doing 
this,  the  success  of  the  infantry  attack  is  generally 
assured;  if  not,  this  attack  will  probably  fail.  Hence, 
during  the  artillery  duel  (.'^OOO — 2000  yards),  every  at- 
tempt should  be  made  to  crush  the  oj)posing  artillery. 
The  decisive  engagement  of  the  ojjposing  guns  being 
at  about  2000  yards,  it  follows  that  at  this  range  the 
utmost  endeavor  should  be  made,  while  not  neglect- 
ing the  whole  line  of  guns,  to  concentrate  an  over- 
whelming fire  on  each  part  in  turn.  The  special  ob 
ject  sought  should  be  the  destruction  of  the  pprsonneh 
as  the  dan]a<:e  to  the  rnateriel  is  generally  trifling. 

Q.  Why  is  the  artillery  preparation  of  the  infant- 
ry attack  more  im])ortant  to-day  than  formerly? 

A.  Because  infantry  on  tlu^  defensive  is  now  gen- 
erally sheltered  by  hasty  intrenchments,  and  because 
the  range  and  destructive  effect  of  its  weapons  expose 
the  assailant  to  more  severe  and  long-continued  fire 
than  was  formerly  the  case. 

Q.  After  silencing  the  enemy's  guns,  or  aL  least 
establishing  a  marked  superiority  over  them,  what 
should  the  artillery  of  the  attack  do? 

A.  It  should  direct  a  heavy  fire  upon  the  point  of 
attack. 

Q.  Describe  the  manner  of  supporting  the  infant- 
ry attack  by  artillery. 

A.  As  soon  as  the  order  is  given  to  the  infantry 
to  advance,  all  the  guns  turn  their  fire  on  the  point  of 
attack,  for  the  hostile  infantry  is  now  the  objective 


ArlUlcnj  ill  A  Hack  and  in  Defense.  75 

and  tlu^  part  of  the  enemy  capable  of  inflicting  the 
most  serious  loss  on  the  assailant.  A  ])art  of  the 
guns  push  on  with  the  infan.trj,  regarding  nothing 
but  the  support  of  the  latter  at  close  quarters;  these 
guns  deliver  a  fire  at  close  range,  endeavoring  to  shat- 
ter the  I'eserves,  to  overwhelm  any  fresh  batteries  the 
enemy  may  try  to  bring  up,  etc. 

Q.  How  long  should  the  artillery  ke(»i>  u])  its  i\vo 
in  the  support  of  the  infantry  attack? 

A.  Long  enough  to  keep  the  hostile  infantrv 
fi'oni  rc^turning  to  its  position  and  presenting  a  good 
front  to  the  aKsault;  but  not  so  long  as  to  fire  into  its 
own  infantry  as  the  latter  gets  closer  and  closer  to  the 
enemy.  A  safe  rule  is  to  keep  up  the  fire  on  the  en- 
emy's main  ])()sition  until  the  final  charge,  and  then 
to  throw  shrapnel  far  enough  back  to  reach  the  en- 
emy's reserves. 

(}.  When  the  hoslih'  }M>sition  is  i-arricd,  what 
should  the  artillery  do? 

A.     It  should  hasten  forward  to  assist  in  a  fuither 
advance,  or  to  check  a  counter-attack.     If  the  infant 
ry  attack  fail,  the  advancing  batteries  halt,  and  come 
into  action  in  order  to  cover  the  withdrawal  of  thi^ 
infantry. 

Q.  In  what  way  does  artillery  give  solidity  to  at- 
tack formation? 

A.  By  furnishing  ])oints  of  support  to  large  bod- 
ies of  infantry  in  extended  order  that  are  of  great 
value  in  the  tumult  and  danger  of  battle. 

Q.  What  is  the  first  objective  of  the  artillery  of 
the  defense? 

A.  To  oi)en  the  most  effective  fire  possible  on  the 
batteries  of  the  attack,  for  if  it  can  gain  the  supe- 


76  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

riority  over  the  latter,  the  infantry  attack  will  prob- 
ably not  be  made.  If,  however,  the  attacking  bat- 
teries gain  the  upper  hand,  then  the  guns  of  the  de- 
fense are  turned  on  the  advancing  troops,  and  keep 
up  this  fire  until  either  the  attack  is  repulsed  or  until 
the  position  is  abandoned.  In  the  former  case  the 
guns  must  assist  in  the  counter-attack;  in  the  latter, 
they  must  cover  the  retreat  of  the  infantry. 

Q.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  i)Osi- 
tion  for  artillery  on  the  defensive? 

A.  They  are  essentially  those  of  a  good  position 
for  attack,  as  the  object  in  each  case  is  to  hit.  Hence 
there  must  be  a  clear  view  to  the  front  and  to  the 
'flanks.  As  the  flanks  are  the  essentially  weak  points 
of  the  defense,  they  must  be  supplied  with  guns,  so 
that  if  the  enemy  attempt  a  turning  movement,  he 
will  be  compelled  to  deploy  at  a  distance,  and  thus 
give  the  defense  time  to  prepare  to  meet  this  attack. 
Some  of  the  guns  should  from  the  first  be  posted  so 
as  to  cover  weak  points,  and  others  so  as  to  compel  a 
deplojnnent  at  a  distance;  but  the  greater  part  should 
not  be  placed  in  position  until  the  attack  is  more  or 
less  developed,  so  as  not  to  unmask  the  position. 
Hence  the  batteries  should  be  brought  up  near  the 
position,  and  held  under  cover  until  the  proper  mo- 
ment for  ymtting  them  into  action. 

Q.     Discuss  briefly  the  question  of  cover  for  guns. 

A.  Natural  cover  should  be  used  if  possible,  and, 
if  there  is  time,  gun-pits  made.  Screening  the  guns 
will  often  be  easier  than  getting  actual  cover;  the 
effect  of  screening  is  to  deceive  the  enemy  as  to  the 
range,  and  thus  lead  him  to  waste  his  ammunition. 
Artificial  cover  should  b^  concealed  as  much  as  pos 


Artillery  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  77 

sible  by  brushwood,  turf,  etc.  Cover  for  the  person- 
nel is  more  importaut  than  cover  for  the  materiel;  the 
men  should  be  sheltered  first  and  then  the  horses. 

Q.  What  is  the  position  of  the  artillery  relative 
to  the  infantry  in  the  defense? 

A.  In  the  opening  stages  of  the  combat,  the  ar- 
tillery is  the  more  important  arm.  Hence  the  most 
important  points  are  held  by  it,  a  few  guns  being  run 
up  and  the  rest  held  in  readiness  to  come  forw^ard 
when  needed.  Small  parties  of  infantry  and  of  cavalry 
are  jmshed  forward  to  baffle  reconnoitering  parties. 
As  the  battle  proceeds,  these  are  called  in,  but  skir- 
mishers are  kept  about  500  yards  to  the  front,  whose 
business  it  is  to  keep  the  hostile  skirmishers  back  500 
yards  more,  and  thus  relieve  the  guns  of  all  anxieties 
on  this  score. 

Q.  What  is  the  objective  of  the  batteries  ^f  the 
defense  ? 

A.  As  in  the  attack,  the  assailing  artillery  is  the 
chief  target  in  the  first  zone,  and  his  infantry  in  the 
second  and  the  third. 

Q.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  batteries  of  the 
defense  during  the  artillery  duel? 

A.  To  overwhelm,  if  possible,  the  guns  of  the  at- 
tack. lUit  cases  may  arise  in  which  this  is  of  sec- 
ondary importance,  as,  after  all,  the  crushing  of  the 
enemy's  infantry  is  the  final  objective.  Hence,  if 
the  position  is  so  strong  that  the  hostile  artillery 
can  do  it  no  harm,  or  if  the  batteries  of  the  defense  are 
relatively  w^eak,  or  if  the  hostile  infantry  is  compelled 
to  deploy  at  very  long  range,  the  duel  should  be  de- 
clined, and  the  guns  kept  under  cover  until  the  deci- 
sive infantry  attack  is  made. 


78  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  When  the  hostile  infantry  is  engaged,  what 
are  the  duties  of  the  artillery  of  the  defense? 

A.  It  should  apply  itself  exclusively  to  the  as- 
saulting columns,  regardless  of  the  hostile  guns.  For 
if  the  infantry  is  not  checked,  any  damage  to  the  en- 
emy's guns  will  be  of  no  value  in  deciding  the  action, 
while  if  it  is  checked,  his  guns  may  be  safely  ignored. 

Q.     How  should  guns  be  withdrawn  from  action? 

A.  When  the  enemy's  artillery  has  such  an 
ascendency  as  to  compel  withdrawal  from  action,  or 
when  it  is  necessary  to  fall  back  on  a  second  i)osition. 
the  batteries  should  withdraw  deliberately  at  a  walk, 
only  a  part  of  the  batteries  retiring  at  once.  These 
take  up  a  position  on  the  rallying  position  in  rt^ar  and 
cover  by  their  fire  the  withdrawal  of  the  remaining 
batteries.  To  retire  in  good  order,  dispositions  must 
be  made  in  advance,  before  the  enemy's  infantry  has 
come  up  to  the  attack.  But  if  the  attack  has  been 
begun,  the  batteries  must  remain  on  the  line,  and,  if 
necessary,  sacrifice  itself:  it  is  no  disgrace  to  lose  guns 
gallantly  fought  to  the  bitter  end. 

Q.  What  may  be  said  of  Ihe  ability  of  artillery  to 
defend  its  own  front  against  infantry  and  cavalry? 

A.  In  open  ground  it  may  be  asserted  confidently 
that  artillery  can  defend  its  own  front  from  attacks 
of  infantry.  But  it  may  be  equally  confidently  as 
serted  that  artillery  alone  cannot  by  its  fire  drive  a 
resolute  enemy  from  his  line  of  defense.  Cavalry, 
even  more  easily  than  infantry,  can  be  repelled  by  ar- 
tillery fire  on  open  ground.  But  an  unexpected  at- 
tack by  cavalry  on  the  flank  or  rear  of  artillery,  or 
while  the  latter  is  limbering  or  unlimbering,  would 
be  disastrous. 


Artillery  in  Attack  and  in  Defense.  79 

Q.  rpoii  wliat  does  ii  battery  depend  for  am- 
munitiou? 

A.  First,  on  its  own  limbers  and  caissons;  next  on 
the  ammunition  columns;  and  lastly,  on  the  ordnance 
trains.  The  limbers,  during  an  action,  are  kept  on 
the  Hank  of  their  batteries;  the  caissons  of  the  fight- 
ing batteries,  each  in  rear  of  its  own  platoon.  The 
ammunition  columns  should  approach  more  or  less 
closely  to  the  line  of  battle  as  long  as  the  action  is 
progressing  favorably;  in  the  opposite  case,  they 
should  remain  at  a  distance,  except  such  caissons  as 
aie  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  the  guns  supplied. 
During  an  action,  no  opportunity  should  be  lost  to 
replenish  the  ammunition  of  the  batteries,  limbers 
and  caissons  being  refilled  to  their  utmost  capacity 
whenever  possible,  as,  for  example,  during  lulls  in  the 
combat. 

Q.     What  are  the  functions  of  horse  artillery? 

A.  The  distinctive  characteristic  of  horse  artil- 
lery is  its  mobility.  Hence  it  is  particularly  valuable 
as  a  part  of  th(»  corps  artillery,  because  it  can  be  so 
quickly  moved  where  needed,  and  also  valuable  as  an 
auxiliary  of  cavalry  in  attack  and  defense.  As  part 
of  the  corps  artillery,  it  is  used  to  extend  the  line  of 
battle,  to  suj)port  fltink  attacks,  to  reinforce  threat- 
ened })oints,  and  in  general  for  any  operation  involv- 
ing the  rapid  entry  of  guns  into  action. 

It  is,  however,  with  cavalry  that  horse  artillery 
finds  its  greatest  use.  It  supports  this  arm  by  its  fire- 
action,  and  pre])ares  the  way  for  its  charges,  much  as 
field  artillery  ])repares  the  way  for  infantry.  This 
similarity  is  all  the  more  marked  when  cavalry  fights 
on  foot.  In  pursuit,  or  in  covering  a  retreat,  horse 
artilleiv  is  invaluable. 


80  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  How  may  horse  artillery  be  used  in  reconnais- 
sance? in  a  regular  battle? 

A.  In  reconnaissance,  to  drive  in  outposts  and  to 
develop  the  hostile  position.  In  the  preliminary 
phases  of  battle,  to  develop  the  enemy's  position,  and 
to  force  the  hostile  infantry  columns  to  deploy  pre- 
maturely. It  is,  moreover,  very  efficacious  in  the 
cavalry  engagements  that  so  frequently  mark  the  be- 
ginning and  the  close  of  a  great  battle. 

Q.  What  is  the  objective  of  the  fire  of  the  horse 
artillery  of  a  cavalry  division? 

A.  It  should,  if  possible,  be  the  hostile  cavalry; 
but  if  this  is  not  in  sight,  then  the  hostile  artillery. 
As  the  hostile  cavalry  moves  to  the  attack,  its  first 
line  should  be  crushed,  if  possible;  then  its  support 
and  reserve.  If  the  enemy's  artillery  should  get  the 
upper  hand  of  our  own  cavalry,  then  part  of  the  horse 
artillery  should  return  the  hostile  fire,  but  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  principal  target  should  always 
be  the  enemy's  cavalry. 

Q.  What  should  be  done  with  horse  artillery  in 
a  general  engagement? 

A.  If  the  cavalry  is  guarding  the  flanks,  the  horse 
artillery  remains  with  it,  for  it  may  be  needed;  but  if 
the  cavalry  is  in  reserve,  then  the  horse  batteries  re- 
inforce the  general  artillery  line.  In  case  of  victory, 
the  horse  artillery  accompanies  the  pursuit. 

Q.  What,  probably,  will  be  the  influence  of 
smokeless  powder  on  artillery  tactics? 

A.  As  the  firing  line  will  now  be  scarcely  visible, 
it  can  not  be  so  easily  distinguished  by  artillery  as  in 
the  days  when  it  defined  itself  by  its  own  smoke. 
Hence,  there  is  greater  need  than  ever  for  artillery 


AriilUry  in  Allach  and  in  Defense.  81 

to  accompany  infantry  in  attack.  The  smoke  no 
longer  marking  the  position  of  the  guns,  artillery 
can  remain  in  action  longer  than  formerly;  but,  on  the 
otlier  hand,  the  absence  of  smoke  in  itself  makes  the 
battery  more  cons]ncuous,  if  it  can  be  seen  at  all. 
Fire  will  hereafter  be  more  continuous,  as  a  battery 
will  no  longer  be  inconvenienced  by  its  own  smoke. 

Q.  (Jive  the  general  i»rinciples  governing  the  em- 
ployment of  artillery  in  battle. 

A.  I.  Artillery  should  be  brought  into  action  at 
the  very  beginning  of  the  battle,  and  should  be  act- 
ively employed  as  long  as  an  enemy  remains  on  the 
field. 

II.  It  should  be  employed  in  masses,  and  should 
concentrate  its  fire;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
massing  guiis  does  not  consist  in  posting  the  batteries 
contiguously,  but  in  keeping  them  together  under 
unity  of  command,  so  as  to  admit  of  mutual  support 
and  of  the  direction  of  their  fire  on  a  common  objective. 

III.  It  should  take  up  a  position  as  close  to  the 
enemy  as  it  can  without  incurring  unnecessary  and 
ruinous  losses. 

IV.  It  should  not  feel  called  upon  to  blaze  away 
the  moment  it  comes  into  position,  but  it  should  en- 
deavor to  open  an  effective  fire  with  the  least  possible? 
delay. 

V.  It  must  never  be  forgotten  that  the  value  of 
artillery  depends  upon  the  accuracy  of  its  fire. 

VI.  Artillery  should  alwa.ys  fire  at  a  definite  ob- 
ject, and  should  avoid  "shelling"  the  woods,  or  engag- 
ing in  any  other  ineffective  cannonade. 

VII.  Every  opportunity  should  be  taken  to  re- 
idenish  ammunition.  The  supply  must  not  be  allowed 
to  fail,  especially  at  critical  moments. 


82  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

\i\l.  The  principal  task  of  the  artillery  is  to 
cnisli  the  enemy's  infantry.  It  turns  its  attention  to 
his  artillery  only  as  a  means  of  getting  rid  of  an  ob 
stacle  to  its  attempts  upon  his  infantry,  or  as  a  means 
of  protecting  its  own  infantry  from  the  fire  of  the  en- 
emy's guns.  In  a  cavalry  battle,  the  cavalry  is  the 
objective  of  the  artillery  fire. 

IX.  When  the  attack  is  successful,  the  artillery 
must  push  forward  to  secure  the  captured  position. 

X.  In  case  of  defeat,  the  artillery  must  be  pre- 
pared to  cover  the  retreat,  and,  if  necessary,  to  sacri- 
fice itself  for  the  safety  of  the  rest  of  the  army. 

XI.  It  should  never  abandon  a  position  unless 
ordered  to  do  so.  The  loss  of  guns  is  highly  hon- 
orable when,  by  remaining  in  action  until  the  last 
moment,  they  have  inflicted  serious  loss  upon  the 
enemy. 


The  Three  Arms  Oomhined.  83 

CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Tiirke  Aums  Combined. 

(2.     What  is  meant  by  the  term  "plan  of  battle'-? 

A,  ^Vhen  an  army  comes  in  contact  with  the  en- 
emy, and  the  strategical  operations  are  about  to  cul- 
minate in  a  tactical  decision,  its  commander  must  first 
decide  whether  to  attack  or  to  stand  on  the  defensive. 
If  the  decision  be  in  favor  of  the  offensive,  he  must 
next  determine  whether  to  attack  the  enemy  in  front, 
to  combine  front  and  flank  attacks,  or  to  attempt  to 
pierce  some  point  of  the  hostile  line.  Having  settled 
upon  the  method  of  attack,  he  must  next  decide  upon 
the  points  of  the  opposing  line  upon  which  the  attack 
should  fall.  These  matters  determined,  he  must  pro- 
vide for  the  combination  of  the  several  arms  so  as  to 
obtain  their  most  efficient  mutual  support  and  con- 
centrated action,  and  make  the  best  use  of  the  terrain. 
These  decisions  and  arrangements  constitute  the  plan 
of  battle. 

Q.  How  is  the  question  of  the  defensive  or  of  the 
offensive  usually  decided? 

A.  Generally  by  circumstances  as  they  develop. 
The  choice  sometimes  lies  in  the  commanding  officer, 
who  must  then  carefully  weigh  all  questions  of  ter- 
rain, morale,  relative  numbers,  characteristics  of  the 
enemy,  etc. 

-Q.  Why,  as  a  rule,  should  a  frontal  attack  not  be 
made? 

A.  Because  it  is  the  least  decisive  mode  of  assail- 
ing the  enemy.       If  successful,  it  merely  drives  him 


84  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

back  on  his  base,  thus  resulting  in  a  barren  victory. 
It  may,  however,  be  necessary ;  for  example,  when  the 
enemy's  flanks  rest  on  impassable  objects.  To  be  suc- 
cessful, it  must  in  any  case  be  made  with  a  force 
larger  than  the  enemy's. 

Q.  Why  are  flank  attacks  necessary,  and  with 
what  are  they  usually  combined? 

A.  Since  frontal  attacks  are  rarely  de^cisive  and 
generally  impracticable,  some  other  mode  of  over 
throwing  the  enemy  must  be  sought,  and  the  one  gen- 
erally adopted  is  the  combination  of  front  and  of 
flank.  The  necessity  is  this  combination  has  already 
been  mentioned.* 

Q.  Why  should  a  simultaneous  attack  oi)  both 
flanks  be  avoided? 

A.  Because  ordinarily  this  would  so  weaken  the 
center  as  to  expose  it  dangerously  to  counter-attack. 

Q.  What  is  the  effect  of  piercing  the  enemy's 
front? 

A.  An  attack  piercing  the  enemy's  front  is  more 
decisive  than  any  other,  for  it  generally  results  in 
cutting  oft'  a  part  of  the  hostile  army  from  its  base, 
and  causing  either  surrender  or  annihilation.  Such 
a  method  of  attack  is,  however,  rarely  practiced 
to-day. 

Q.     W^hat  is  meant  by  the  "order  of  battle"? 

A.  The  relative  tactical  positions  of  the  opposing 
forces  in  preparation  for  battle,  or  during  the  en- 
counter. 

Q.  What  are  the  three  orders  of  battle,  and  how 
does  each  come  into  existence? 

A.     First,  the  parallel,  when  the  attack  is  made 

'•'■^ee  page  51.  > 


The  Three  Arms  Combined.  85 

along  the  whole  line;  then,  the  concave,  when  an  at- 
tempt is  made  to  turn  both  flanks  of  the  enemy;  lastly, 
the  convex,  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  pierce  the 
front. 

Q.  State  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages 
of  the  various  orders  of  battle. 

A.  The  parallel  rarely  yields  decisive  results,  and 
is  not  adopted  except  from  necessity.  The  concave 
order  opposes  a  converging  to  a  diverging  fire,  but,  un- 
less it  completely  encloses  the  enemy,  one  or  both 
flanks  are  dangerously  exposed  to  counter-attack;  if, 
however,  too  great  an  expansion  is  made,  the  center 
is  liable  to  be  pierced  by  the  enemy.  The  concave  is 
usually  preferable  to  the  convex  order,  and  indeed 
some  variety  of  the  concave  order  is  usually  chosen. 
Sometimes  tlie  convex  disposition  is  forced  on  a  com- 
manding general  by  the  necessities  of  the  case,  as  in 
Ihe  passage  of  a  river,  when  troops  are  pushed  forward 
to  cover  the  passage,  and  the  other  troops  afterward 
take  position  on  the  flanks  of  these.  In  the  convex 
order  the  fire  of  the  troops  is  divergent,  and  the  en- 
emy's fire  on  one  wing  may  take  the  other  in  reverse; 
if  the  center  of  the  line  is  pierced,  both  wings  are 
taken  in  flank. 

In  general,  any  offensive  plan  is  faulty  that  does 
not  contemplate  the  turning  of  a  flank. 

Q.  How  is  the  choice  of  the  point  of  attack 
determined? 

A.  By  tactical  considerations,  if  the  sole  object 
of  the  attack  is  to  gain  a  victory  and  the  possession 
of  the  field;  by  strategical  considerations,  if  the  object  is 
to  gain  the  greatest  results  from  the  battle.  For  exam- 
ples of  strategical  considerations,  if  an  army  is  connect- 


86  Elements  of  Military  Science, 

(»d  by  one  flank  with  its  base,  attack  that  flank,  so  as  to 
(»ut  the  enemy  from  his  base,  and  therefore  from  sup- 
ports and  succor.  Or,  if  an  army  is  connected  by  its 
flank  with  a  fort,  attack  that  flank;  if  the  line  of  re- 
treat lies  obli(iuely  in  rear  of  one  wing,  that  wing 
should  be  the  point  of  attack,  for,  in  case  of  success, 
the  enemy  is  cut  ofl'  from  his  line  "of  retreat. 

Q.     Give  some  examples  of  tactical  considerations 
in  choosing  the  point  of  attack. 

A.  The  enemy's  advanced  posts  should  be  cap- 
tured, unless  so  far  apart  that  the  attack  can  be  made 
between  them.  If  the  advanced  posts  are  strong  and 
close  together,  they  must  be  captured.  If  a  strongly 
fortified  position  lies  in  the  line  of  battle,  the  attack 
should  bear  on  points  more  easily  carried,  and  from 
which  the  fortified  post  or  position  can  be  assailed  in 
rear.  When  one  of  the  hostile  flanks  rests  on  an  im- 
passable obstacle,  the  other  extremity  of  the  wing  so 
situated  forms  a  tempting  point  of  attack,  for,  if  the 
front  is  pierced,  the  troops  so  cut  off  may  be  thrown 
back  on  the  obstacle,  and  either  destroyed  or  cap- 
tured. 

Q.     Give  reasons  why  a  reserve  should  always  be 
provided. 

'  A.  A  reserve  is  necessary  to  give  a  vigorous  blow 
at  a  timely  moment,  either  to  clinch  a  success  or  to 
check  an  advantage  gained  by  the  enemy.  This  re- 
serve varies  in  strength;  it  may  often  be  one-fourth  of 
the  whole;  it  must  always  be  used  at  exactly  the  right 
moment.  If  i^ut  in  too  soon,  it  will  not  be  available 
for  the  moment  of  exhaustion  found  in  every  battle 
when  the  victory  will  go  to  that  combatant  who  first 
can  resume  the  offensive;  if  put  in  too  late,  there  may 


The  Three  Anns  Combined.  87 

be  nothing;  kft  for  it  but  to  cover  the  retreat  that 
.might  have  been  prevented  by  its  timely  use. 

Q.  State  th(i  functions  of  each  arm  in  combina- 
tion with  the  others. 

A.  Tlie  infantry  protects  and  supports  the  artil- 
lery; the  artillery  prepares  the  way  for  the  infantry, 
supports  it  in  the  attack,  and  protects  it  in  the  retreat. 
The  cavalry  must  reconnoiter  the  enemy,  protect  the 
ilanks  of  the  army,  support  and  gain  time  for  the  other 
arms  by  vigorous  charges  when  they  are  sorely 
pressed,  and  reap  the  fruits  pf  victory  by  an  energetic 
imrsuit. 

Q.  Into  what  three  parts  may  an  attack  be 
divided? 

A.  Into  the  preparation,  the  attack  proper,  and 
the  occupation  of  the  position  or  the  withdrawal  from 
action. 

il.     Describe  the  preparation  for  the  attack. 

A.  The  preparation  for  the  attack  is  made  by  the 
advance  guard.  Meeting  the  enemy,  it  endeavors  to 
drive  him  back  until  it  encounters  serious  resistance, 
when  it  continues  to  fight  a  delaying  action  until  the 
arrival  of  reinforcements.  The  artillery  is  the  first  to 
come  up;  it  occupies  the  reconnoitering  position,  tri^s 
to  develop  the  enemy  by  drawing  the  fire  of  his 
batteries,  and  begins  the  duel  with  his  artillery.  The 
l)roportion  of  infantry  engaged  so  far  is  small,  being 
mainly  employed  as  skirmishers  in  front  of  the  artil- 
lery, or  else  held  in  compact  bodies  on  the  flanks.  Dur- 
ing these  operations  the  main  body  of  the  infantry  is 
approaching,  and  takes  position  as  the  hostile  posi- 
tion is  developed,  and  while  the  commanding  general 
is  maturing  his  plan.     As  soon  as  the  dispositions  of 


88  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

the  infantry  are  completed,  the  artillery  moves  for- 
ward and  begins  the  duel.  All  the  guns  should  now  be 
put  in,  and  deliver  as  eii'ective  a  lire  as  possible  on  the 
enemy's  line.  During  the  duel,  the  infantry  com- 
pletes its  preparations  for  the  attack,  and  is  moving 
forward  to  effective  rifle-range  of  the  enemy.  The 
termination  of  the  artillery  duel  marks  the  end  of  the 
preparatory  stage,  and  the  infantry  passes  on  to  the 
real  attack. 

Q.     Describe  the  attack  proper. 

A.  The  infantry  of  .the  first  line  is  now  within 
800 — 1000  yards  from  the  enemy,  and  directs  its  at- 
tack on  points  battered  by  the  preceding  artillery  fire. 
The  assault  is  made  as  already  described.  The  artil- 
lery concentrates  its  fire  on  the  points  of  attack,  the 
divisional  batteries  advancing  to  the  supporting  posi- 
tion and  pouring  a  heavy  fire  on  the  hostile  infantry. 

During  the  attack  the  cavalry  on  the  flanks  seeks 
opportunities  to  charge,  and  especially  guards  the 
advancing  infantry  from  all  attacks  by  the  hostile 
cavalry.  A  portion  of  the  reserve  is  ordered  up  to 
support  and  to  revive  a  flagging  attack,  or  to  check  a 
counter-stroke  by  the  enemy.  The  attack  culminates 
1^;^  the  merging  of  the  entire  first  line  in  the  firing  line; 
rapid  magazine  fire  is  opened  and  the  line  throws 
itself  upon  the  enemy  with  the  bayonet.  The  second 
line  usually  joins  in  the  charge,  the  artillery  firing 
shrapnel  as  long  as  it  can  do  so  without  injury  to  its 
own  side. 

Q.  What  are  the  special  points  to  be  considered 
in  preparing  and  carrying  out  an  attack  by  a  force  of 
all  three  arms? 

I.  The  clearest  possible  understanding  of  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  enemy's  position. 


The  Three  Arms  Combined.  89 

II.  A  defiuile  object  to  be  gained  by  the  attack. 

III.  A  careful  selection  of  the  points  of  attack, 
and  the  formation  of  a  plan  of  battle,  which  should 
not  be  changed  unless  circumstances  absolutely  com- 
pel an  alteration  therein. 

IV.  The  concentration  of  a  powerful  artillery  fire 
on  the  point  selected  for  attack. 

\.  False  attacks  on  other  points,  to  prevent  the 
enemy  from  divining  the  real  objective  of  the  attack. 

VI.  The  support  of  the  infantry  by  artillery, 
both  in  the  duel  and  in  the  supporting  positions. 

VII.  Prompt  use  of  the  reserves  at  the  decisive 
moment. 

VIII.  Keeping  a  force  of  cavalry  well  in  hand  to 
guard  the  flanks,  follow  uj)  a  success,  cover  a  defeat, 
or  make  a  diversion. 

Q.  Describe  the  occupation  of  the  hostile  posi- 
tion after  a  successful  assault. 

A.  After  a  successful  assault,  th^  first  and  second 
lines  are  generally  disorganized.  Hence  the  third 
line  pushes  forward  to  hold  the  captured  position,  and 
to  furnish  cover  behind  which  the  first  and  second 
lines  can  re-form.  The  cavalry  and  the  horse  artil- 
l(M"y  should  pursue,  followed  as  soon  as  possible  by  the 
first  and  the  second  lines  and  the  field  batteries. 

Q.  In  the  case  of  a  repulse,  how  should  the  with- 
drawal be  made? 

A.  The  infantry  endeavors  to  withdraw  by  alter- 
nate bodies,  the  withdrawing  body  being  covered  by 
the  fire  of  the  rest.  The  principal  protection  must  be 
offered  by  the  artillery  and  the  cavalry,  each  of  which 
must  sacrifice  itself  if  necessary. 

Q.     In  taking  up  the  defensive,  what  three   ad- 


90  Elements  of  Mililary  Science. 

vantages  should  the  commanding  officer  endeavor  to 


secure 


A.  He  should  endeavor  to  select  a  position  that 
will  guard  his  line  of  retreat,  facilitate  the  tactical 
cooperation  of  the  three  arms,  and  enable  him  at  the 
oppoa'tune  moment  to  pass  from  the  defensive  to  the 
offensive.  The  first  and  the  second  conditions  are 
imi)ortant;  the  third  may  be  ignored  in  a  purely  de- 
fensive battle. 

Q.  What  should  be  the  character  of  the  grouud 
in  front  of  the  position? 

A.  It  should  be  open,  so  as  to  afford  a  clear  field 
of  fire  and  such  an  unobstructed  view  that  the  enemy 
cannot  approach  anywhere  within  range  unseen. 

Q.  How  should  the  terrain  in  front  of  the  posi 
tion  be  i)repared,  if  time  permit? 

A.  It  should  be  covered  with  military  obstacles, 
such  as  abatis,  pits,  wire  entanglements,  etc.  Fences 
and  hedges  may  often  be  utilized  to  great  advantage. 

Q.  What  is  one  of  the  first  requirements  of  the 
defensive  i)Osition  proper — i.  e.,  the  line  on  which  the 
men  are  stationed? 

A.  It  should  be  suited  in  extent  to  the  size  of  the 
force  to  occupy  it.  If  too  wide  in  extent,  it  will  be 
weakly  occupied;  if  the  extent  be  too  small,  the  men 
will  be  so  crowded  as  to  be  incapable  of  efficient 
action,  and  besides  will  suffer  unnecessary  loss.  Sev- 
en men  per  yard,  including  reserves,  may  be  regarded 
as  ample  for  the  defense  of  a  position. 

Q.  Mention  another  essential  of  a  good  defensive 
position. 

A.  Good  cover.  Natural  cover  for  the  reserves 
may  often  be  found,  but  protection  for  troops  in  action 


The  Three  Arms  Combined.  91 

must  generally  be  provided  by  intrenchments.  These 
enable  a  commanding  officer  to  hold  a  part  of  his  line 
with  a  comparatively  light  force,  while  massing 
greater  numbers  elsewhere  for  offensive  movements. 
Intrenchments  should  never  be  constructed  so  as  to 
be  an  obstacle  to  the  advance  of  the  defensive  troops, 
when  it  is  decided  to  make  a  counter-stroke.  As  a 
rule,  it  is  better  to  have  the  troops  make  their  own 
intrenchments. 

Q.  How^  should  the  flanks  of  a  defensive  position 
be  protected? 

A.  By  resting  them  on  strong  points,  either  nat- 
ural or  artificial.  An  example  is  a  hill  easy  to  defend, 
but  hard  of  access  for  the  enemy;  or  a  fortification. 
The  flank  should  be  hard  to  carry  by  open  assault  or 
to  turn.  If  there  are  no  such  secure  points  of  support, 
a  reserve  should  be  kept  in  rear  of  the  flank  to  be 
guarded,  ready  to  oppose  any  flank  attack  that  may 
be  made. 

(2-  If  possible,  what  should  be  the  nature  of  the 
ground  in  rear  of  the  position? 

A.  It  should  be  such  as  to  offer  a  succession  of 
good  defensive  positions,  each  susceptible  of  occupa- 
tion in  turn. 

Q.  Give  a  summary  of  the  requirements  of  a  per- 
fect defensive  position. 

A.  I.  It  should  have  a  clear  field  of  fire  to  the 
front  and  flanks. 

II.  The  ground  in  its  front  should  be  such  as  to 
impede  the  enemy  without  affording  him  shelter  from 
fire. 

III.  There  should  be  no  points  in  its  front  which 
could    be   advantageously    occupied    by    the    enemy. 


92  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Should  such  points  exist,  they  should  either  be  held 
as  advanced  posts  or  destroyed. 

IV.  It  should  be  suitable  in  extent  to  the  size  of 
the  force  which  occupies  it. 

V.  Its  flanks  should  rest  securely  upon  defensible 
objects. 

VI.  It  should  have  good  lateral  communications; 
such  that  the  ditt'erent  parts  of  the  front  may  be  able 
to  assist  each  other. 

VII.  It  should  furnish  good  cover  for  the  troops. 

VIII.  It  should  be  such  as  to  admit  of  the  con- 
cealment of  the  strength  and  composition  of  the  forc(^ 
occupying  it. 

IX.  It  should  cover  the  line  of  retreat  squarely. 

X.  The  terrain  should  be  adapted  to  the  action 
of  that  arm  in  which  the  defender  is  proportionately 
strongest  or  superior  to  the  enemy;  and  it  should  be 
such  as  to  facilitate  the  assumption  of  the  offensive 
at  an  opi)ortune  moment. 

Q.  What  in  general  is  the  best  order  of  battle  for 
a  defensive  position? 

A.  The  concave,  as  it  always  enables  a  converg- 
ing, and  at  close  quarters  a  flanking,  fire  to  bear  on 
the  attack. 

Q.     Of  what  three  stages  does  the  defense  consist? 

A.  Of  the  preparatory  stage,  of  the  defense  prop- 
er, and  of  the  counter-attack  (withdrawal,  in  case  of 
defeat).  In  the  preparatory  stage,  as  soon  as  the 
heads  of  columns  come  within  range,  the  batteries  told 
off  for  the  purpose  open  fire  on  them,  but  the  guns  in 
the  main  line  are  not  brought  up  before  the  assailant's 
artillery  takes  up  the  reconnoitering  position.  Even 
then,  only  as  many  guns  are  brought  up  as  may  be 


The  Three  Arms  Conihined.  93 

needed  to  make  the  enemy  deploy,  for  it  is  important 
to  avoid  betraying  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  posi- 
tion. A  part  of  the  infantry  is  deployed  as  skirmish- 
ers in  front  of  the  batteries,  but  the  main  body  is  held 
in  hand,  sheltered  as  much  as  possible,  until  the  time 
comes  for  effective  employment.  The  cavalry  and  the 
horse  artillery  are  on  the  flanks  to  guardagainst  flank 
attacks,  and  to  be  ready  to  make  them  themselves, 
should  opportunity  offer. 

The  real  defense,  or  defense  proper,  comes  off  when 
the  hostile  infantry  reaches  the  third  zone,  when  that 
of  the  defense  must  be  in  ])osition.  As  the  real  attack 
is  now  develojjcd,  the  infantry  must  be  reinforced  at 
(I'itical  points,  and  the  artillery,  ignoring  the  hostile 
guns,  fires  on  the  enemy's  infantry.  The  cavalry  on 
the  flanks  seeks  an  opportunity  to  make  flank  attacks, 
as  when  shattering  losses  or  the  exhaustion  of  ammu- 
nition deprive  the  hostile  infantry  of  a  large  measure 
of  its  powers  of  resistance. 

As  the  enemy  approaches  for  the  final  charge,  the 
entire  first  line  is  merged  in  the  firing  line,  which 
opens  i'aj)id  fire,  while  the  second  line  is  held  in  readi- 
ness to  charge  to  meet  the  enemy  at  the  monuMit  of 
collision.  The  cavalry  and  the  horse  artillery  assist 
the  third  line  in  the  counter-attack  according  to  prin- 
ciples ali'eady  described.  In  case  of  defeat,  the  with 
diawal  is  made  as  in  the  case  of  the  attack. 

Night  Attacks. 

Q.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  night  attacks? 

A.     The  advantages  are: 

].  The  fire  of  the  enemy  is  encountered  only  at 
short  range,  and  the  dispositions  for  attack  may 
tluM'efore  be  much  simplified. 


94  Elements  of  Militriry  Science. 

2.     Tlie  enemy  is  taken  by  surprise. 
The  disadvantages  are: 

1.  The  attacking  columns  are  liable  to  lose  their 
way  in  the  dark. 

2.  The  different  columns  are  in  danger  of  mistak- 
ing each  other  for  the  enemy,  thus  not  only  incurring 
loss  at  their  own  hands,  but  giving  warning  to  the 
enemy. 

3.  The  concentration  of  troops  in  the  dark  is  very 
difficult  and  likely  to  lead  to  great  confusion. 

4.  The  ground  cannot  be  so  well  known  to  the 
assailant  as  to  the  defender. 

Q.  What  is  an  essential  condition  for  the  success 
of  night  attacks? 

A.  That  the  terrain  over  which  they  are  to  be 
made  shall  be  accurately  known ;  otherwise  the  attack 
is  more  than  likely  to  fail.  Leaders  should  know 
thoroughly  what  they  are  each  to  do,  and  there  should 
be  a  watchword  to  enable  the  different  columns  to 
identify  one  another  on  meeting.  Lateral  commu- 
nications between  the  attacking  columns  should  be 
maintained. 

Q.  To  what  sort  of  forces  are  night  attacks  best 
suited? 

A.  To  small  forces;  for  the  visibility  and  noise 
increase  with  the  size  of  the  attacking  columns,  and 
thus  tend  to  defeat  the  object  of  the  night  attack. 

Q.  How  may  the  concealment  afforded  by  dark- 
ness be  utilized  otherwise  than  in  night  attacks? 

A.  In  night  marches;  their  object  being  to  put  a 
force  in  position  for  an  attack  at  dawn. 

Q.     What  arms  should  be  used  in  night  attacks? 

A.     If  possible,  only  infantry;  but  artillery  should 


The  Three  Arms  Combined.  95 

be  hold  ill  readiness  to  push  forward  to  assist  the  as- 
sailing columns,  as  soon  as  the  attack  is  developed, 
ond  there  is  no  longer  any  occasion  for  secrecy.  Cav- 
alry cannot  well  be  used,  as  the  noise  of  the  horses  is 
largely  beyond  the  control  of  the  men. 

Q.  Htate  the  conditions  under  which  night  at- 
tacks by  large  forces  will  be  advantageous. 

A.  1.  When  the  attacking  army  is  in  such  spir- 
its and  rendered  so  audacious  by  previous  success 
Ihat  it  is  in  a  condition  to  undertake  anything. 

2.  When  the  enemy  is  known  to  be  demoralized, 
short  of  ammunition,  or  grossly  careless  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  outpost  duties. 

3.  When  reinforcements  are  expected  by  the  en- 
emy, and  the  capture  of  the  i)osition  is  dependent 
upon  i)rompt  action,  while  an  assault  does  not  seem 
to  be  practicable  by  daylight. 

4.  For  the  purpose  of  cutting  through  a  superior 
force  of  the  encMuy,  in  which  case  a  surprise  is  neces- 
sary, and  may  be  best  effected  under  cover  of  the 
darkness. 


PART  II. 

Fhe  Service  of  Security  and 
Information. 


The  Advance  Guard.  99 

CHAPTER  I. 
The  Advance  Guard. 

Q.  What  would  be  the  effect  if  the  entire  army 
were  kept  constantly  on  the  alert? 

A.  Its  surprise  would  be  impossible,  but  it  would 
be  ruined  by  physical  hardship.  To  guard  against  sur- 
prise without  making  undue  demands  upon  the  endur- 
ance of  the  soldiers,  use  is  made  of  covering  detach- 
ments, which  should  be  strong  enough  to  hold  the  en- 
emy while  the  main  body  is  preparing  for  action. 

Q.  How  is  the  security  of  an  army  provided  for 
on  the  march,  and  at  a  halt? 

A.  On  the  march  the  security  of  the  army  is  pro- 
vided for  by  advance  guards,  rear  guards,  and  flank- 
ing detachments;  at  a  halt  a  chain  of  outposts  protects 
it  from  surprise. 

Q.  The  information  necessary  for  a  commander 
is  of  what  two  kinds? 

A.  1.  That  relating  to  the  geography,  topog- 
raphy, and  resources  of  the  theater  of  operations. 

2.  That  which  relates  to  the  strength  and  com- 
position of  the  enemy's  forces,  and  their  position, 
movements,  and  morale. 

Q.  How  are  these  two  kinds  of  information  ob- 
tained? 

A.  Among  military  nations,  the  first  kind  of  in- 
formation is  now  generally  obtained  in  time  of  peace. 

The  second  class  of  information  is  gained  in  two 
ways : 


100  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

1.  From  spies,  deserters,  prisoners,  newspa- 
pers, etc. 

2.  By  reconnaissance. 

Q.  What  would  be  the  effect  if  troops  moving  in 
one  body  should  come  suddenly  upon  the  enemy. 

A.  They  would  certainly  be  thrown  into  confu- 
sion, and  perhaps  defeated,  before  deployment  for 
action  could  be  effected.  Moreover,  insignificant 
bodies  of  the  enemy  could  seriously  delay  the  march 
of  the  column  by  causing  it  to  halt  and  deploy  for 
action. 

Q.  How  is  a  column  of  troops  on  the  march, 
therefore,  divided? 

A.  Into  a  main  hody^  an  advance  guards  a  rear  guardy 
and  such  flanking  parties  as  may  be  necessary. 

Q.     What  are  the  objects  of  *  the  advance  guard? 

A.  1.  To  provide  for  the  security  of  the  main 
body  by  giving  it  time  for  deployment  when  the  enemy 
is  encountered. 

2.  To  clear  the  way  for  the  main  body  and  pre- 
vent its  march  from  being  delayed. 

3.  To  seize  and  hold  important  points  until  the 
arrival  of  the  main  body. 

4.  To  support  the  reconnoitering  cavalry,  and 
afford  a  rallying-point  for  it  in  case  it  is  driven  in  by 
the  enemy. 

Q.  How  does  the  proportionate  strength  of  the 
advance  guard  vary? 

A.  No  absolute  rule  for  the  strength  of  the  ad- 
vance guard  can  be  given,  but  it  varies  with  the  size 
of  the  main  body,  the  object  of  the  march,  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  country,  and  the  nature  of  the  enemy. 
In  a  close,  rugged  country,  and  against  an  enemy  in- 


The  Advance  Guard.     ^  101 

feiior  in  numbers  and  morale,  it  should  be  less  than 
in  an  open  country,  against  a  strong,  aggressive  en- 
emy, or  when  the  intention  is  to  bring  on  a  decisive 
engagement.  With,  a  large  force  the  proportionate 
strength  of  the  advance  guard  is  larger  than  in  the 
case  of  a  small  column. 

Q.  As  a  rule,  what  portion  of  the  entire  force  is 
assigned  to  the  advance  guard  and  to  the  rear  guard 
on  advance — and  what  on  a  retrograde  movement? 

A.  As  a  general  rule  (subject,  however,  to  a  multi- 
tude of  exceptions),  we  may  ass;  ni  '  the  strength  of  the 
advance  guard  to  be  one-sixth  of  the  vliole  force,  and 
the  r(\ar  guard  to  be  half  as  strong  as  the  advance 
guard.  On  a  retrograde  movement  the  relative 
strength  of  the  advance  and  rear  guards  would  be' 
le versed. 

Q.     Into  V.  hat  two  parts  is  the  advance  guard  pri 
marily  divided,  and  what  is  the  strength  of  each? 

A.  Into  the  reserve  and  Ihe  vanguard.  The  reserve 
consists  of  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  entire 
advance  guard.  The  remainder  constitutes  the  van- 
guard. 

Q.  Into  what  two  parts  is  the  vanguard  divided, 
and  what  is  their  relative  strength? 

A.  Into  the  advance  party  and  the  support;  the  lat- 
ter being  generally  twice  as  strong  as  the  former. 

Q.     How  are  these  proportions  varied? 

A.  In  large  advance  guards  this  proportion  is 
often  different;  the  support,  relatively  to  the  advance 
l)arty,  and  the  reserve,  relatively  to  the  vanguard, 
being  considerably  greater.  These  proportions  are, 
moreover,  varied  according  to  the  most  convenient 
subdivisions  of  the  organizations  composing  the  ad- 


102  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

vauce  guard.  They  may  be  regarded  as  suitable  in 
most  cases. 

(For  a  typical  formation  of  a  company  of  infantry 
as  an  advance  guard,  see  Plate  Z.) 

Q.  What  may  be  given  as  a  typical  formation  for 
the  advance  party  when  the  advance  guard  consists  of 
a  company? 

A.  The  advance  party,  consisting  of  one  section, 
throws  forward  a  "point"  consisting  of  three  or  four 
men  under  a  non-commissioned  officer.  On  each  side 
a  flanking  group  of  four  men  marches  about  150 
yards  from  the  main  route  to  the  right  and  left  rear 
respectively  of  the  point.  Each  flanking  group  should 
be  under  a  corporal  or  old  soldier,  and  would  habit- 
ually march  with  two  men  in  front  and  one  in  rear  of 
the  group-leader,  though  the  formation  adopted  would 
depend  upon  circumstances.  The  rest  of  the  advance 
party  follows  100  yards  in  rear  of  the  point. 

Q.  How  is  the  support  formed,  and  how  does  it 
march? 

A.  The  support  (one  section)  follows  the  advance 
party  at  a  distance  of  200  yards,  throwing  out  two 
flanking  groups  of  four  men  each  to  its  right  and  left 
front,  and  somewhat  farther  out  than  the  flankers  of 
the  advance  party.  A  connecting  file,  detached  from 
the  advance  party,  marches  between  the  advance 
party  and  the  support  to  aid  in  the  transmission  of 
intelligence  from  one  to  the  other. 

Q.  How  is  the  reserve  formed,  and  how  does  it 
march? 

A.  The  reserve  marches  about  500  yards  in  rear 
of  the  support,  a  connecting  file  marching  between 
them.    The  reserve  may  throw  flanking  groups  to  tlje 


The  Advance  Guard. 


103 


COMPANY  OF  INFANTRY  AS  ADVANCE  GUARD 
•'  *•    POINT 
FLANKERS  ♦,,,--??--''- -J*---?-'^--;.-^    rtANKERS 
1  SECTION  "4»'  ADVANCE  PARTY. 

Si 

>■ ; 
•  •  q;  •  • 

FLANKERS  4. «i  ..-♦   FLANKtRS 

•  '"■"-—.  !  ..--•'**'  • 

1  SECTION  "+ SUPPORT 


1  PLATOON   ^^   RESERVE 


I      MAIN 

Plate  T, 


104  Elements  of  Military  Science.  •, 

frout  or  to  the  front  and  rear,  but,  the  groups  being 
slightly  farther  out  than  those  of  the  supjport,  as  a 
rule,  the  reserve  should  be  kept  entire  and  well  in 
hand, 

Q.     Where  does  the  main  body  march? 

A.  The  main  body  follows  the  reserve  at  500 
yards,  one  or  two  connecting  files  marching  between 
the  two  bodies. 

Q.     Are  the  distances  (as  given  above)  invariable? 

A.  No,  they  are  variable;  but  those  from  the  sup- 
port to  the  reserve,  and  from  the  reserve  to  the  main 
body,  can  not  ])rudently  be  made  more  than  600  or 
800  yards,  respectively,  in  the  case  of  so  small  a  force 
as  the  one  considered. 

Q.  If  the  nature  of  the  country  is  such  as  to 
render  the  use  of  flanking  groups  impracticable,  what 
is  done? 

A.  Both  the  advance  party  and  the  support  move 
forward  entire,  with  the  exception  that  the  advance 
party  is  always  preceded  by  a  point. 

Q.  When  marching  in  an  open  country,  how  may 
the  advance  party  be  formed? 

A.  It  may  be  deployed  as  skirmishers,  with  con- 
siderable intervals,  the  support  following  in  line  of 
squads.  The  reserve  should  ordinarily  be  kept  in 
column. 

Q.  W^hat  might  result  if  the  distance  of  the  ad- 
vance guard  from  the  main  body  were  too  great,  and 
what,  if  it  were  too  small? 

A.  If  the  distance  were  too  great,  the  advance 
guard  might  be  forced  into  a  heavy  engagement  while 
beyond  the  assistance  of  the  main  body,  and  might 
even  be  entirely  cut  off  by  an  attack  upon  its  flank  and 


The  Advance  Guard.  105 

rear.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  distance  were  not 
great  enough,  time  could  not  be  afforded  for  the  prej)- 
aration  of  the  main  body  for  action. 

Q.  (live  a  rough  rule  which  will  answer  in  most 
cases  for  determining  the  distance  of  the  advance  guard 
from  the  main  body. 

A.  A  rough  rule  is,  that  the  minimum  distance 
should  be  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  main  body;  as  the 
time  required  for  the  rear  troops  to  deploy  on  the  head 
of  the  column  would  not  be  greater  than  that  taken 
by  the  advance  guard  in  falling  back. 

Q.  When  a  large  force  is  acting  with  energy  and 
aggressiveness  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  on  a  bat- 
tle, what  is  the  rule? 

A.  The  main  body  must  be  drawn  nearer  to  the 
advance  guard,  as  the  latter  must  be  promptly 
supported. 

Q.  How  do  the  nature  of  the  country  and  state 
of  the  weather  aff(K*t  this  distance? 

A.  If  the  country  is  full  of  defensive  positions, 
such  as  to  admit  of  a  sturdy  delaying  action  on  the 
part  of  the  advance  guard,  the  distance  may  be  de- 
creased. In  foggy  weather,  or  at  night,  or  during  a 
storm  of  rain  or  snow,  the  distance  should  be  de- 
creased, as  well  as  the  front  covered  by  the  scouting 
groups  or  flanking  parties.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
country  is  open,  the  weather  clear,  and  there  is  danger 
of  the  advance  guard  being  driven  back,  the  distance 
must  be  increased. 

Q.  What  important  fact  must  be  constantly  con- 
sidered in  regard  to  the  vanguard  and  the  reserve? 

A.  That  the  vanguard  is  the  reconnoitering  part, 
and  the  reserve  essentially  the  fighting  part,  of  the 


106  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

advance  guard.  The  reserve  is  therefore  the  first 
body  that  really  demands  time  for  deployment. 

Q.     By  whom  is  the  vanguard  commanded? 

A.  The  vanguard  should  always  be  commanded 
by  an  officer,  who  should  be  mounted,  if  possible,  and 
furnished  with  a  detailed  map  of  the  region  through 
which  the  force  is  marching. 

Q.  What  is  the  chief  duty  of  the  commander  of 
the  vanguard. 

A.  To  see  that  the  i)roper  road  is  taken;  to  cause 
necessary  repairs  to  be  made  in  roads,  bridges,  ap- 
proaches to  fords,  etc.;  and  to  see  that  the  march  of 
the  column  is  not,  under  any  circumstances,  unneces- 
sarily delayed. 

Q.  Where  does  the  commander  of  the  advance 
guard  march? 

A.  He  is  generally  with  the  reserve;  but,  on  ap- 
proaching the  enemy,  should  go  wherever  his  presence 
is  most  needed.  He  should  always  be  mounted,  if 
practicable,  even  in  the  case  of  a.  small  advance  guard. 

Q.  What  qualities  does  the  commander  of  the  ad- 
vance guard  need,  and  why? 

A.  Courage,  self-reliance,  and  good  judgment. 
A  timid  officer  in  command  of  an  advance  guard 
would  suffer  the  column  to  be  delayed  by  small  parties 
of  the  enemy;  a  rash  one  would  plunge  into  combat, 
and  might  thus  impose  upon  his  superior  a  course  of 
action  at  total  variance  with  his  plans. 

Q.  What  should  the  commander  of  the  advance 
guard  continually  consider,  and  what,  in  general, 
should  he  do? 

A.  He  should  continually  consider  the  measures 
pecessary  for  the  security  of  the  march,  and  for  rap- 


The  Advance  Guard.  _  107 

idly  gaining  reliable  information  of  the  enemy.  He 
should  carefully  observe  the  ground,  and  consider  the 
tactical  use  that  might  be  made  of  it,  and  should  have 
a  clear  idea  as  to  what  he  intends  to  do  in  case  the 
enemy  is  encountered. 

Q.     What  is  done  when  the  advance  guard  halts? 

A.  All  approaches  should  be  reconnoitered  and 
guarded,  and  an  officer  should  be  sent  to  get  an  ex- 
tended view  from  the  highest  available  point.  Dur- 
ing a  short  halt,  each  part  of  the  advance  guard  re- 
mains in  the  place  where  it  is  halted.  If  a  prolonged 
halt  is  contemplated,  it  occupies  ground  that  will 
furnish  a  good  defensive  position. 

Q.  How  is  information  conveyed  from  one  part  of 
the  advance  guard  to  another? 

A.  By  some  code  of  signals.  Shouting  and  un- 
necessary firing  should  be  carefully  avoided.  Th(^ 
point  and  flankers  fire  only  when  they  are  certain  that 
they  have  been  seen  by  the  enemy  and  that  he  is  not 
retiring. 

Q.  How  does  a  cavalry  advance  guard  compare 
with  one  composed  of  infantry? 

A.  It  is  similar  in  its  formation,  except  that  the 
distances  and  intervals  are  greater. 

Q.  Why  are  the  distances  and  intervals  greater 
in  the  case  of  a  cavalry  advance  guard  than  in  one 
composed  of  infantry? 

A.  Cavalry  possessing  much  greater  mobility 
than  infantry,  the  different  covering  troops  can  be 
safely  separated  from  each  other  by  greater  distances 
in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  arm.  Moreover,  the 
resisting  power  of  cavalry  is  less  than  that  of  infant- 
ry, and  when  a  cavalry  advance  guard  is  driven  in  by 


108  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

the  enemy,  the  ground  is  passed  over  more  rapidly  in 
retreat  than  in  the  ease  of  a  corresponding  infantry 
force.  Hence,  in  order  to  give  each  successive  body 
in  rear  time  to  prepare  for  action,  the  distances  must 
necessarily  be  greater  for  cavalry. 

Q.  Why  should  an  advance  guard  be  ^composed 
of  all  arms? 

A.  Because  reconnoitering  duty  can  be  per- 
formed more  efficiently  and  more  easily  by  cavalry 
than  by  infantry;  because  infantry  has  more  resisting 
power  than  the  cavalry;  and  because  artillery  is  of 
great  value  in  preparing  the  way  for  the  advance 
guard  and  in  compelling  the  enemy  to  deploy  at  a 
distance. 

Q.  How  would  the  different  arms  be  distributed 
in  the  advance  guard? 

A.  The  cavalry  would  constitute  the  vanguard, 
and  the  infantry  the  reserve.  The  artillery  would 
habitually  be  with  the  reserve,  though  in  some  cases 
a  few  guns  might  march  with  the  support. 

Q.  How  are  engineers  used  with  the  advance 
guard? 

A.  A  few  engineers  should  march  with  the  sup- 
port, to  repair  bridges,  remove  obstacles,  etc. 

Q.  Upon  what  does  the  proportion  of  each  arm 
with  the  advance  guard  depend,  and  when  is  each 
preferable? 

A.  It  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  country, 
the  object  of  the  march,  and  the  strength,  composi- 
tion, and  proximity  of  the  enemy.  In  close  or  moun- 
tainous country,  the  proportion  of  infantry  should  be 
increased.  In  an  open  country  the  cavalry  should  be 
strengthened.     If  the  enemy  is  strong  and  near,  and 


The  Advance  Guard.  109 

a  battle  seems  imminent,  the  advance  guard  should  be 
very  strong  in  infantry  and  guns.  If,  however,  it  is 
desired  merely  to  develop  the  enemy  without  serious- 
ly engaging,  the  advance  guard  should  consist  of  cav- 
alry and  light  artillery  (horse  artillery,  if  possible), 
as  these  troops  can  be  more  readily  withdrawn  than 
infantry.  In  the  pursuit  of  a  beaten  foe,  or  whenever 
the  object  is  to  follow  and  keep  touch  with  the  enemy, 
the  proportion  of  cavalry  should  be  as  great  as 
possible. 

Q.  What  should  be  done  by  the  advance  guard 
when  the  enemy  is  encountered? 

A.  As  soon  as  the  enemy  is  seen,  the  advance 
guard  must  endeavor  to  ascertain  promptly  whether  it 
has  to  deal  with  an  outpost  of  a  stationary  force, an  ad- 
vance guard  of  a  marching  body,  or  a  flanking  detach- 
ment of  a  column.  It  should  lose  no  time  in  discover- 
ing where  the  enemy's  main  position  is,  or  how  far 
away  is  the  marching  column.  The  relative  numbers 
and  position  and  the  orders  under  which  the  advance 
guard  is  acting  will  decide  the  question  of  attacking 
or  taking  up  a  defensive  position.  The  offensive  is 
generally  the  best  if  an  attack  seems  at  all  likely  to 
succeed.  If  it  be  decided  to  attack,  the  reserve  will 
reinforce  the  support  if  the  defensive  has  been  decided 
upon,  or  if  the  enemy  is  in  such  force  that  the  advance 
guard  can  not  hold  its  own  against  him,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  fall  back  slowly  and  stubbornly  to  a  defen- 
sive position  or  upon  the  main  body. 


110  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

CHAPTER  II. 
Outposts  in  General. 

Q.  What  are  outposts,  and  with  what  duties  are 
they  charged? 

A.  Outposts  are  detachments  thrown  out  from 
a  force  wl^en  halted,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  it 
from  surprise.  Like  advance  guards  on  the  march, 
outposts  are  charged  with  the  duties  of  observation 
and  resistance.  They  prevent  the  reconnaissance  of 
the  position  by  the  enemy's  scouts  and  patrols,  give 
warning  of  the  approach  of  hostile  bodies,  and  offer 
sufficient  resistance  to  the  enemy's  attacks  to  enable 
the  main  body  to  prepare  for  action. 

Q.  What  effect  has  a  system  of  outposts  on  the 
health  and  efficiency  of  an  army? 

A.  Unbroken  rest  at  night  being  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  the  health  and  efficiency  of  troops 
undergoing  the  hardships  and  fatigues  of  a  campaign, 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  repose  of  the 
army  in  camp  or  bivouac  should  not  be  disturbed  by 
needless-  alarms.  The  army  must  feel  that  the  vigil- 
ance of  its  outposts  enables  it  to  sleep  in  security. 

Q.  How  may  the  duties  of  an  outpost  be  class- 
ified. 

A.     The  duties  of  the  outposts  may  be  classified 
as  follows: 
Observation : 

1.  To  observe  constantly  all  approaches 
by  which  the  enemy  might  advance. 

2.  To   watch,  and   immediately   report, 
the  movements  of  the  enemy. 


Outposts  in  General.  Ill 

Resistance: 

1.  To  prevent  reconnaissance  by  the 
enemy. 

2.  Aiove  ally  to  check  the  advance  of  the 
enemy  long  enough  to  enable  the  main 
body  to  prepare  for  action. 

Q.     Into  what  parts  is  an  outpost  divided? 

A.  Into  four  parts,  namely:  1.  Sentinels  or 
vedettes;    2.  Pickets;    3.  Supports;    4.  Reserve. 

Q.  Who  occupy  the  line  of  observation,  and  who 
the  line  of  resistance? 

A.  The  sentinels  or  vedettes*  occupy  the  line  of 
observation.  They  are  sent  out  from  the  pickets,  and 
supported  by  them.  The  supports  usually  occupy  the 
line  of  resistance,  and  are  supported  by  the  reserve. 

Q.  What  are  the  normal  distances  between  the 
subdivisions  of  an  outpost  of  infantry,  of  cavalry? 

A.  In  an  infantry  outpost  the  pickets  are  from 
100  to  400  yards  in  rear  of  the  sentinels;  the  supports, 
from  400  to  800  yards  in  rear  of  the  pickets;  and  the 
reserve,  from  400  to  800  yards  in  rear  of  the  supports. 
In  a  cavalry  outpost  the  distance  from  the  vedettes 
to  the  i)icket  is  about  GOO  yards,  and  the  other  dis- 
tances vary  between  the  limits  of  1200  and  2000  yards. 
These  distances  can  not  be  definitely  fixed,  as  they  de- 
pend upon  many  circumstances  of  ground,  weather, 
and  the  nature  and  proximity  of  the  enemy. 

il.  To  what  may  the  general  plan  of  an  outpost 
be  likened? 

A.  To  an  open  fan,  the  sentinels  being  along  the 
outer  edge;  or,  better  yet,  to  a  hand  with  the  fingers 
extended  and  widely  opened.    A  line  along  the  tips  of 

*A  vedette  is  a  mounted  sentinel^ 


112  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

tbe  fiugers  would  represent  the  chain  of  sentinels;  the 
first  joints,  the  line  of  pickets;  the  second  joints,  the 
line  of  supports;  and  the  knuckles,  the  line  of  the  re- 
serve; while  the  wrist  would  represent  the  position  of 
the  main  body.     (See  Plate  8.) 

Q.  What  portion  of  the  strength  of  the  outpost 
is  generally  assigned  to  the  reserve,  to  the  supports, 
and  to  the  pickets? 

A.  The  reserve  generally  consists  of  not  less  than 
one-third  nor  more  than  one-half  of  the  entire  outpost. 
The  strength  of  the  supports  and  pickets  would  con- 
sequently vary  from  two-thirds  to  one-half  of  the? 
outpost. 

Q.  On  what  does  the  strength  of  a  picket  depend, 
and  what  principle  regulates  the  strength  of  each 
support? 

A.  The  strength  of  each  picket  depends  upon  the 
number  of  sentinels  and  patrols  that  it  has  to  furnish, 
and  the  size  of  each  support  is  regulated  by  the  prin- 
ciple that  it  should  be  equal  to  the  aggregate  strength 
of  all  the  pickets  supported  by  it.  As  a  general  rule, 
one-third  of  the  outposts  would  be  assigned  to  the  re- 
serve, one-third  to  the  supports,  and  one-third  to  the 
pickets  and  sentries. 

Q.  What  two  systems  of  outposts  are  there,  and 
what  are  their  general  characteristics? 

A.  Outposts  are  of  two  kinds :  the  cordon  system, 
in  which  the  entire  front  is  covered  with  a  chain  of 
sentinels;  and  the  patrol  system,  in  which  only  the 
roads  and  other  avenues  of  approach  are  guarded  by 
sentinels,  closely  backed  up  by  pickets,  while  the  in- 
tervening country  is  constantly  patrolled.  The  best 
results  are  generally  obtained  by  a  combination  of  the 
two  systems. 


Outposts  in  General. 


113 


< 

o  O 


vnoooeAoemuaim  latu  vtivvaa 


Plate  8. 


114  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  State  the  requirements  of  a  good  outpost 
position. 

A.  The  outpost  must  cover  the  front  of  the  army 
and  overlap  its  flanks,  unless  the  latter  are  secured  by 
impassable  obstacles.  A  prominent  natural  feature 
should  be  selected  to  mark  the  general  line,  such  as  a 
ridge,  a  river,  or  the  farther  edge  of  a  wood.  The 
most  favorable  position  is  one  which  furnishes  a  good 
view  and  field  of  fire  to  the  front,  while  affording  con- 
cealment from  the  enemy  and  shelter  from  his  fire. 

Q.  State  what  furnishes  one  of  the  best,  and  what 
one  of  the  worst,  outpost  positions. 

A.  One  of  the  best  positions  is  a  wood  held  at  the 
edge  toward  the  enemy,  and  one  of  the  worst  is  a  wood 
held  at  the  nearer  edge. 

Q.  What  should  generally  be  the  shape  of  the  out 
post  line? 

A.  It  should  be  convex  towards  the  enemy,  or 
straight  with  its  extremities  thrown  back.  Unless 
the  nature  of  the  ground  compels,  it  should  never  be 
concave,  even  when  that  is  the  shape  of  the  position 
which  it.  covers.  It  does  not  necessarily  confonn 
strictly  to  the  line  of  the  position  in  any  case. 

Q.  On  what  does  the  strength  of  the  outpost 
depend? 

A.  Upon  various  considerations,  such  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  country  and  the  strength,  proximity,  and 
character  of  the  enemy.  In  a  country  well  adapted 
to  defense,  smaller  numbers  suffice  than  in  an  open 
country.  When  the  enemy  is  near  and  aggressive, 
the  outposts  must  be  strong  and  vigilant.  The 
strength  of  the  outpost  will  also  depend  upon  the  plan 
of  action  determined  upon  in  case  of  attack.     If  the 


Ontposts  in  General.  115 

line  chosen  for  the  deployment  of  the  main  body  coin- 
cides with  the  line  of  resistance  of  the  outpost,  the 
latter  force  must  be  strong  enough  to  hold  the  chosen 
position  to  the  utmost.  If  it  is  decided  to  fall  back 
upon  the  main  body,  the  outpost  not  only  may  be,  but 
should  be,  weaker  than  in  the  former  case,  as  a  strong 
force  would  be  more  likely  to  become  compromised  in 
a  serious  engagement  than  a  weaker  one. 

Q.  As  a  rule,  wiiat  is  the  maximum  strength  of 
an  outpost  in  proportion  to  the  entire  command? 

A.  As  a  rule,  the  maximum  strength  of  an  out- 
post is  one-sixth  of  the  entire  force.  This  proportion 
should  not  be  exceeded,  except  in  case  of  absolute 
necessity,  and  it  should  be  less  whenever  a  reduction 
is  consistent  with  prudence. 

Q.  When  the  army  is  marching,  from  day  to  day, 
what  constitutes  the  outpost  at  each  halt? 

A.  When  an  army  is  on  the  march  from  day  to 
day,  the  advance  guard  constitutes  the  outpost  at  each 
halt;  but  if  its  duties  during  the  day's  march  have 
been  arduous,  it  must  be  relieved,  as  soon  as  practica- 
ble, by  fresh  troops. 

Q.  If  outposts  are  required  on  the  flanks  and  rear, 
of  what  are  they  composed? 

A.  They  are  composed  of  the  flank  and  rear 
guards,  when  such  guards  exist  in  sufficient  strength; 
otherwise  such  outposts  are  taken  from  the  main 
body,  which  will  also  furnish  them  when  the  duties  of 
the  flank  and  rear  guards  during  the  day  have  been 
especially  trying. 

(For  a  typical  disposition  of  a  regiment  of  infantry 
forming  the  outpost  of  a  division,  see  Plate  8.) 

Q.  In  the  disposition  of  an  outpost,  what  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  difl'erent  tactical  units? 


116  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  They  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  kept  in- 
tact. Thus,  supposing  the  outposts  of  a  division  to 
consist  of  a  regiment  of  infantry,  the  reserve  might  be 
composed  of  the  first  battalion;  the  support,  of  two 
companies  of  the  second  battalion  and  two  of  the 
third,  each  supporting  the  remaining  companies  of  its 
own  battalion,  which  would  constitute  the  pickets  and 
sentinels.     (See  Plate  8.) 

(For  a  typical  disposition  of  a  squadron  of  cavalry 
forming  the  outpost  of  a  cavalry  brigade,  see  Plate  9.) 

Q.  How  are  the  outposts  for  divisions  and  bri- 
gades generally  furnished? 

A.  Each  division  will  generally  furnish  the  out- 
posts for  its  own  front.  In  a  large  force  especially  this 
principle  may  be  advantageously  applied  to  brigades. 
In  this  case  the  outpost  of  the  division  might  consist 
of  a  battalion  (four  companies)  from  each  of  the  three 
brigades. 

Q.  What  provisions  for  the  command  of  the  out- 
post are  made  in  this  case? 

A.  The  outpost  of  each  brigade  would  be  under 
the  command  of  the  officer  commanding  the  battalion 
composing  it,  and  would  constitute  a  section  of  the 
general  outpost.  An  officer  should  be  detailed  to 
command  the  entire  outpost. 

Q.  When  is  infantry'  preferable  to  cavalry  for 
outpost  duty,  and  the  reserve,  and  how  may  the  two 
arms  be  advantageously  combined. 

A.  In  an  open  country,  in  daytime,  the  duty  can 
be  best  performed  by  cavalry.  In  a  close  country,  at 
night,  and  when  the  enemy  is  near,  infantry  is  pref- 
erable. The  best  performance  of  outpost  duty  re- 
quires a  combination  of  the  two  arms.     Cavalry  is  of 


Outposts  in  General. 


117 


SQ.UADRON  OF  CAVALRY,  OUTPOST  FOR  CAV^LRY  BRIGADE 

LINE  OF  OBSERVATION— 4000  YARDS 
1000  V    .  .  tooo  Y    . 

■^  • -- -'4- 


.«„  TROOP    \     \ 


RESERVE    \^    **C"*AHo"0' 


Plate  9. 


118  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

the  greatest  value  when  pushed  well  to  the  front  as  a 
screen,  but  it  may  often  be  advantageously  combined 
with  infantry  in  the  outpost  proper.  It  may  thus 
occupy  lookout  stations  too  distant  to  be  held  by 
infantry,  or  patrol  to  a  distance  beyond  the  outpost 
that  would  be  impracticable  for  the  latter  arm.  As  a 
rule,  when  it  is  impracticable  to  use  the  cavalry  as  an 
advanced  screen,  its  use  with  the  outposts  should  be 
limited  to  patrolling  and  to  furnishing  orderlies,  when 
necessary,  to  the  pickets,  supports,  and  reserve. 

Q.     How  should  artillery  be  used  with  an  outpost? 

A.  Artillery  is  of  great  value  to  an  outpost  when 
it  can  be  so  posted  as  to  command  an  important  road 
or  defile  and  be  at  the  same  time  beyond  the  effective 
range  of  the  enemy's  rifle  fire.  When  not  posted  to 
command  bridges  or  roads,  it  should  be  with  the  re- 
serve, preferably  near  a  road. 

Q.  What  considerations  determine  the  distance 
of  the  outpost  from  the  main  body? 

A.  The  outpost  must  be  far  enough  from  the  main 
body  to  give  the  latter  time  to  form  for  action  before 
the  outlying  troops  are  driven  in.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  must  not  be  so  far  distant  as  to  be  in  danger  of  be- 
ing cut  off  by  the  enemy.  The  distance  will  also  de- 
pend upon  the  strength  that  can  be  spared  for  the  out- 
post line,  the  length  of  the  line  increasing  almost  in 
direct  proportion  with  the  distance. 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  distance,  and  what  is  the 
maximum  distance? 

A.  The  supports  (occupying  the  line  of  resist- 
ance) should  be  at  a  distance  of  about  3000  yards  from 
the  main  body.  This  fixes  the  line  of  supports,  at 
proper  distances  from  which  the  other  parts  of  the 


Outposts  in  General,  119 

outpost  are  established.  The  maximum  distance 
finmi  an  iufantry  outpost  to  the  body  which  it  covers 
is  about  o  miles,  supposing  the  outpost  to  be  of  con- 
siderable strength  and  strongly  posted. 

Q.  How  is  the  outpost  divided,  and  where  are  the 
several  headquarters? 

A.  The  officer  detailed  to  command  the  outpost 
makes  his  headcjuarters  with  the  reserve,  and  estab- 
lishes there  his  field  telegraph  or  signal  station.  If 
the  front  of  the  outpost  is  considerable,  it  is  divided 
into  sections  of  about  a  mile  or  a  mile  and  a  half  for 
infantry  and  three  miles  for  cavalry,  and  an  officer  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  each  section.  Each  section 
commander  makes  his  headquarters  with  one  of  his 
supports,  and  is  under  the  orders  of  the  commander  of 
the  outpost. 

Q.  What  instructions  does  the  outpost  com- 
mander receive  from  the  commander  of  the  forces,  and 
what  does  he  (the  outpost  commander)  then  do? 

A.  The  outpost  commander  receives  from  the 
commander  of  the  forces  instructions  as  to  the  general 
front  to  be  occupied  by  the  outposts,  their  object,  and 
the  amount  of  resistance  they  are  expected  to  make. 
He  is  also  informed  about  the  avenues  of  approach 
from  the  direction  of  the  opposing  force,  and  is  made 
acquainted  with  everything  known  in  regard  to  the 
position  and  probable  intentions  of  the  enemy.  He 
then*determines  the  strength  of  the  reserve,  supports, 
and  pickets;  decides  upon  the  distance  of  the  line  of 
resistance  from  the  main  body,  and  selects  a  line  of 
observation  farther  in  advance.  The  station  of  the 
reserve  is  next  fixed,  the  positions  of  the  supports 
pointed  out,  places  for  the  pickets  approximately  des- 


120  Elements  of  Military  Science, 

ignated,  and  the  general  line  of  the  sentinels  roughly 
indicated. 

Q.  What  instructions  does  the  outpost  com- 
mander give  to  his  subordinates? 

A.     He  instructs  them  as  to: 

1.  The  general  front  of  the  outpost  line. 

2.  The  ground  to  be  occupied  by  each. 

3.  The  positions   of  neighboring   supports  and 
pickets. 

4.  The  night  positions  of  the  pickets  and  sup- 
ports. 

5.  What  is  known  of  the  enemy  and  his  probable 
movements. 

6.  The  approaches  by  which  the  enemy  might 
advance. 

7.  The  direction  and  method  of  patrolling. 

8.  What  is  to  be  done  in  case  of  attack. 

0.     How  flags  of  truce  and  deserters  are  to  bo 
received. 

10.  The  kind  of  reports  required. 

11.  Where  he  himself  is  to  be  found. 

12.  The  countersign  and  parole. 

Q.  \\^hen  the  outpost  has  been  posted,  what  does 
its  commander  do? 

A.  When  the  outpost  has  been  posted,  its  com- 
mander makes  his  inspection;  orders  such  changes  in 
the  positions  of  supports,  pickets,  or  sentinels  as  may 
seem  advisable;  sees  that  the  roads  and  paths  lading 
from  the  enemy  are  properly  guarded;  gives  direc- 
tions for  the  fortification  of  such  parts  of  the  position 
as  need  strengthening;  and  is  especially  careful  that 
the  flanks  are  secured  by  resting  them  on  impassable 
obstacles,  or  by  refusing  them  and  protecting  them  by 
detachments. 


Sentinels  and  Pickets.  121 


CIIAPTEK  III. 

Sentinels  and  Pickets. — Supports,  Rj^serve. — 
The  Outpost  at  Night. 

Q.  How  are  sentinels  generally  posted,  and  how 
may  the  group  system  be  used? 

A.  Sentinels  must  be  so  posted  as  to  have  a  good 
view  to  the  front  and  flanks,  and  be  concealed  as 
much  as  possible.  They  do  not  walk  their  posts,  but 
remain  stationary,  being  generally  posted  double,  so 
that  one  man  may  go  to  examine  any  suspicious  point 
while  the  other  remains  on  post.  They  may  also  be 
posted  in  groups.  In  the  former  case  the  reliefs  not 
on  post  remain  with  the  picket;  in  the  latter  case  the 
group  accompanies  the  sentinel  to  his  post  and  re- 
mains in  concealment  a  short  distance  behind  him. 
AVhen  the  group  system  is  used,  a  single  sentinel  for 
each  will  suffice  by  day,  but  double  sentinels  should 
be  used  at  night.  As  the  group  furnishes  the  reliefs, 
it  should  consist  of  three  or  six  men,  and  every  two  or 
three  groups  should  be  under  the  charge  of  a  non- 
commissioned officer. 

Q.  What  are  the  most  important  requirements  of 
a  good  post  for  a  sentinel? 

A.  There  should  be  easy  communication  with 
neighboring  sentinels  and  with  the  picket,  and  a  clear 
view  of  all  ai)proaches. 

Q.  How  far  apart  may  sentinels  and  vedettes  be? 
— minimum  and  maximum  distances? 

A.  Sentinels  are  generally  not  less  than  100  nor 
more  than  400  yards  apart — the  lesser   limit  being 


122  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

usually  the  minimum  for  single  sentinels,  and  the 
greater  limit  the  maximum  for  double  ones.  Ve- 
dettes may  be  as  far  as  600  yards  apart.  But  no 
definite  rule  can  be  laid  dovyn  in  this  matter,  except 
that  the  number  of  posts  should  be  sufficient  to  insure 
a  vigilant  watch  on  all  points  at  which  the  enemy 
might  approach. 

Q.     How  are  the  sentinel  posts  numbered? 

A.  The  posts  furnished  by  each  picket  are  num- 
bered from  right  to  left. 

Q.     What  are  the  general  duties  of  a  sentinel? 

A.  Sentinels  should  watch  and  listen  without  be- 
traying their  own  prc^sence;  but  observation  is  the 
first  consideration,  and  concealment  is  of  secondary 
importance.  They  must  not  smoke,  and  such  conver- 
sation as  may  be  necessary  between  them  must  be  con- 
ducted in  a  whisper.  The  sentinel  must  not  have 
about  him  any  glittering  accouterments;  and,  except 
in  foggy  weather  or  on  a  dark  night,  must  keep  his 
bayonet  in  its  scabbard. 

Q.  What  should  each  sentinel  clearly  under- 
stand? 

A.     1.     The  countersign. 

2.  The  number  of  his  own  post. 

3.  The  number  and  position  of  his  own  picket  and 
the  name  of  its  commander. 

4.  The  position  of  the  neighboring  sentinels  and 
the  examining  post,  where  there  is  one. 

5.  The  direction  of  the  enemy  and  the  probable 
line  of  his  advance. 

6.  The  points  to  which  all  roads,  paths,  and  rail- 
roads in  sight  lead. 

7.  The  names  of  all  villages  and  rivers  in  view. 


Sentinels  and  Pickets.  123 

8.  The  signals  by  which  he  should  communicate 
with  the  pickets  or  detached  posts. 

The  principal  thing  is  that  he  should  know  where 
to  look  for  the  enemy,  and  what  to  do  if  he  sees  him. 

Q.  What  persons  are  allowed  to  cross  the  line  of 
sentinels,  and  what  is  done  with  the  others? 

A.  Only  persons  in  the  performance  of  duty  with 
the  outpost,  or  having  authority  over  it,  are  allowed 
to  cross  the  line  of  sentinels.  All  other  people,  with 
the  exception  of  deserters  and  bearers  of  flags  of  truce, 
are  halted,  not  more  than  one  being  advanced  at  a 
time,  and  then  conducted,  by  one  of  the  sentinels,  back 
to  the  picket,  or  detained  until  the  arrival  of  the  vis- 
iting patrol.  If  they  refuse  to  halt,  or  attempt  to 
escape,  they  must  be  shot  down.  If  there  is  a  special 
examining  post,  people  are  conducted  to  it  instead  of 
to  the  picket. 

Q.  How  are  deserters  from  the  enemy  received  at 
the  outpost? 

A.  They  are  halted  at  some  distance  from  the 
post,  and  required  to  lay  down  their  arms.  The  com- 
mander of  the  picket  is  at  once  notified,  and  he  sends 
out  a  patrol  to  bring  them  in. 

Q.  When  a  flag  of  truce  approaches,  how  is  the 
bearer  received  by  the  sentinel? 

A.  The  bearer  and  his  escort  (if  he  have  one)  are 
halted  in  front  of  the  line  of  sentinels  and  ordered  to 
face  in  thfe  direction  from  which  they  came.  Word  is 
then  at  once  sent  back  to  the  commander  of  the  picket. 
While  the  bearer  and  his  escort  are  halted,  the  senti- 
nel must  not  converse  with  them  nor  allow  them  to 
reconnoiter. 

Q.  Everything  observed  by  the  sentinel  is  how 
communicated? 


124  Elements  of  Military  Science, 

A.  It  should  be  communicated  at  once  to  the 
picket,  especial  care  being  taken  to  report  promptly 
all  indications  of  the  enemy's  approach.  If  the  senti- 
nel is  satisfied  that  the  enemy  is  advancing  to  attack, 
he  gives  the  alarm  by  firing. 

Q.  What  are  the  general  rules  in  regard  to  senti- 
nels firing? 

A.  When  immediate  alarm  is  not  necessary,  fir- 
ing should  be  avoided;  it  disturbs  the  repose  of  the 
troops,  and  if  groundless  alarms  are  frequently  given, 
the  troops  grow  careless  and  fail  to  heed  the  warning 
when  real  danger  comes.  The  sentinel,  by  firing, 
often  needlessly  alarms  his  own  outpost,  and  gives  a 
certain  amount  of  information  to  the  enemy  by  be- 
traying his  own  position;  while  by  remaining  hidden 
and  watching  carefully  he  might  be  able  to  give  a 
valuable  report  of  the  disposition  of  the  opposing 
outpost. 

Q.  How  are  sentinels  posted,  and  how  often 
should  they  be  relieved? 

A.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  the  same  men  on  the 
same  posts,  instead  of  changing  them  to  new  ones  each 
time  they  are  posted.  For  very  important  posts  the 
most  intelligent  men  should  be  selected,  and  on  dou- 
ble posts  the  well-instructed  and  intelligent  man  is 
placed  with  one  who  is  less  so.  The  sentinels  should 
be  relieved  every  two  hours  during  the  day  and  every 
hour  during  the  night.  In  very  inclement  weather 
they  should  be  relieved  every  hour  during  the  day. 

Q.    How  are  vedettes  posted? 

A.  Vedettes,  like  sentinels,  are  posted  in  pairs, 
and  for  similar  reasons.  One  is  habitually  6  or  8 
yards  to  the  right  or  left  rear  of  the  other;  a  greater 


Sentinels  and  Fichets.  125 

distance  would  make  the  horses  uneasy,  and  thus  dis- 
tract the  attention  of  the  riders,  while  a  less  distance 
would  encourage  conversation  between  the  vedettes. 

Q.  How  msij  vedettes  sometimes  perform  their 
duty  dismounted? 

A.  When  cavalry  is  operating  in  a  close  or  wood- 
ed country,  the  vedettes  may  dismount,  one  holding 
the  horses  while  the  other  keeps  watch.  The  horses 
may  sometimes  be  held  behind  the  brow  of  a  hill, 
while  a  vedette,  lying  down,  peers  over  the  crest. 

Q.     What  is  a  connecting  sentinel? 

A.  When  the  sentinel  post  is  not  in'plain  view  of 
the  picket,  a  connecting  sentinel  is  posted  at  a  point 
where  he  can  see  the  post  and  be  seen  by  the  picket. 
It  is  his  duty  to  transmit  signals  from  one  to  the  other. 
Connecting  sentinels  are  always  single.  A  connect- 
ing vedette  is  generally  mounted  by  day,  and  always 
at  night.     If  dismounted,  his  horse  is  with  the  picket. 

Q.     What  is  a  picket  sentinel? 

A.  ,  A  single  sentinel  posted  at  the  picket  to  keep 
a  lookout  on  the  sentinels  or  connecting  sentinels, 
and  report  all  signals  made  by  them  or  any  unusual 
occurrence.  In  a  cavalry  picket  this  sentinel  is  dis- 
mounted. 

Q.     What  are  detached  posts? 

A.  They  are  small  parties  detached  from  a 
picket  to  protect  exposed  points  or  support  isolated 
sejitinels.  They  consist  generally  of  from  three  to 
twelve  men,  and  are  under  an  officer  or  non-commis- 
sioned officer,  according  to  their  strength  and  the  im- 
portance of  their  position.  They  are,  in  fact,  small 
pickets,  and  must  act  in  concert  with  the  pickets  from 
which  they  are  taken. 


126     .  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  What  points  may  be  advantageously  held  by 
detached  posts '^ 

A.  A  bridge  on  a  flank  might  be  held  by  a  detached 
I)OSt.  An  isolated  hill,  affording  a  good  outlook,  too 
far  to  the  front  to  be  included  in  the  general  line,  but 
n(ar  enough  to  be  occupied  without  extreme  risk, 
should  be  held  by  such  a  post,  communicating  with 
the  outpost  by  signal. 

Q.  How  often  are  detached  posts  relieved,  and 
what  is  required  of  the'  men  composing  them? 

A.  //  practicable,  detached  posts  should  be  re- 
lieved every  six  hours.  They  are  not  allowed  to  light 
fires,  and  the  men  are  required  to  keep  on  their  equip- 
ments and  have  their  arms  constantly  at  hand.  In  a 
detached  post  composed  of  cavalry  the  horses  are 
kept  constantly  saddled  and  bridled  and  held  by 
horse-holders,  three-fourths  of  the  men  being  ready  to 
light  on  foot.  The  sentinels  or  dismounted  vedettes 
are  posted  close  in  front  of  the  party.  Vedettes  may 
be  pushed  farther  forw^ard. 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  strength  of  a  picket,  both 
infantry  and  cavalry? 

A.  An  infantry  picket  generally  consists  of  from 
25  to  50  men,  and  a  cavalry  picket  usually  varies  be- 
tween 20  and  30. 

Q.  How  many  double  sentinels  or  vedettes  does 
a  picket  usually  furnish? 

A.  From  two  to  four  double  sentinels  or  vedettes, 
there  being  three  reliefs  for  each  post. 

Q.  W^hat  regulates  the  strength  of  a  picket,  and 
what  portion  of  the  picket  is  used  in  patrolling? 

A.  If  detached  posts  are  to  be  sent  out  from  the 
picket,    corresponding   additional    strength    must    be 


Sentinels  and  Pickets.  127 

given  it,  aud  an  allowance  must  be  made  for  patrol- 
ling. The  requirements  for  patrolling  vary  so  much 
that  the  proportion  of  the  picket  to  be  used  for  that 
purpose  can  not  be  fixed.  Generally,  about  a  third  of 
the  picket,  should  be  used  in  patrolling.  In  a  close 
country,  the  patrols,  rather  than  the  sentinels,  should 
be  increased;  and  at  night  the  patrols  are  the  princi- 
pal reliance  for  observation.  There  should  be  enough 
men  for  three  patrols,  so  as  to  admit  of  one  patrol  be- 
ing out,  one  ready  to  go  out,  and  one  resting.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  a  cavalry  picket.  The 
strength  of  the  picket  will  thus  vary;  but  its  minimum 
strength  must  allow  six  men  for  every  double-sentinel 
l)ost,  three  for  each  connecting  sentinel,  three  for  the 
picket  sentinel,  and  at  least  three  non-commissioned 
officers.  These  are  the  barest  requirements,  without 
considering  patrols.  The  picket  commander  should 
always,  if  possible,  be  a  commissioned  officer. 

Q.  What  are  the  maximum  and  minimum  fronts 
of  an  infantry  picket? 

A.  The  minimum  front  covered  by  the  sentinels 
of  a  single  picket  may  be  placed  at  400  yards.  The 
maximum  front,  even  when  the  picket  furnishes  four 
double  sentinels,  may  be  placed  at  800  yards. 

Q.     What  are  the  maximum  and  minimum  fronts 
of  a  cavalry  picket? 

A.  The  front  covered  by  the  vedettes  of  a  cavalry 
picket  varies  from  1000  to  2000  yards. 

Q.     Pickets  are  generally  about  how  far  apart? 

A.  Infantry  pickets  are  generally  from  600  to  800 
yards  apart,  and  cavalry  pickets  from  1000  to  1500 
yards.  All  these  distances  vary  with  different  cir- 
cumstances  of   ground   ami   weather;   the   distances 


128  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

given  above  have  been  found  bj  experience  to  answer 
in  many  cases,  but  they  must  often  be  materially 
changed. 

Q.  What  line  is  the  first  consideration  in  select- 
ing the  ground  for  the  outpost? 

A.  The  line  of  resistance  should  be  made  the  first 
consideration  in  selecting  the  ground  for  the  outpost; 
then  the  line  of  observation  should  be  fixed,  the  posi 
tion  of  the  sentinels  regulating  that  of  the  pickets,  and 
not  the  reverse. 

Q.  What  are  the  six  requirements  of  a  perfect 
picket  post? 

A.  1.  It  should  be  near  enough  to  the  sentinels 
to  give  them  prompt  support,  but  not  so  close  as  to  be 
involved  in  their  disaster  if  they  should  be  surprised 
and  suddenly  driven  in; 

2.  It  should  be  posted  on,  and  command,  some 
route  leading  from  the  enemy;  the  largest  pickets  on 
the  most  important  routes; 

3.  It  should  be  in  good  defensive  position,  should 
have  a  good  field  of  fire  to  the  front,  and  should  be  so 
far  concealed  that  the  enemy  could  not  discover  it 
without  attacking; 

4.  It  should,  as  far  as  consistent  with  the  forego- 
ing requirements,  be  in  rear  of  the  center  of  its  line  of 
sentinels ; 

5.  It  should  have  free  approaches  to  its  sentinels, 
neighboring  pickets,  supports,  and  reserves,  and 
should  have  a  good  line  of  retreat; 

6.  It  should  be  close  enough  to  the  neighboring 
pickets  for  mutual  support,  and  a  mutual  flanking  fire 
should  be  provided  for. 

A  position  fulfilling  all  these  requirements  can 
scarcely  be  hoped  for;  the  best  position  will  be  the  one 
which  fulfills  the  greatest  part  of  them. 


Sentinels  and  Pickets.  129 

Q.  When  an  impassable  obstacle  lies  along  a  por- 
tion of  the  front  of  the  outpost,  what  may  be  done? 

A.  When  an  impassable  obstacle,,  such  as  a 
swamp,  lake,  or  stream,  lies  along  a  portion  of  the 
front  of  the  outposts,  the  strength  at  that  part  of  the 
line  may  be  limited  to  the  requirements  of  observa- 
tion, the  sentinels  being  few,  and  the  chief  reliance  be- 
ing placed  upon  patrolling. 

Q.  What  are  the  general  rules  concerning  fires 
with  the  pickets? 

A.  Fires  should  not  be  lighted  by  a  picket  unless 
they  can  be  well  concealed  from  the  enemy. 

Q.  What  is  required  of  the  men  comjiosing  the 
picket,  both  infantry  and  cavalry? 

A.  The  men  composing  the  picket  stack  arms  and 
may  remove  their  equipments,  with  the  exception  of 
the  cartridge-belt.  They  must  not  leave  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  picket,  and  must  be  ready  to  fall 
in  at  a  moment's  notice.  Part  of  the  men  must  be 
constantly  under  arms  at  night,  and  separated  from 
the  rest,  who  keep  their  arms  close  at  hand  while 
sleeping.  If  danger  seems  imminent,  the  entire 
picket  must  be  awake  and  under  arms.  In  a  cavalry 
picket,  or  in  the  case  of  mounted  orderlies  attached 
to  an  infantry  picket,  the  horses  should  be  kept  con- 
stantly saddled,  and  the  bridles  should  be  taken  off 
only  for  feeding  and  watering.  Not  more  than  one- 
third,  or  at  most  one-half,  of  the  horses  should  be  fed 
at  a  time. 

Q.     What  do  the  supports  constitute? 

A.  The  supports  constitute  a  force  upon  which 
the  pickets  fall  back  if  driven  in  by  the  enemy,  or  with 
which  (in  exce])1ional  cases)  the  pickets  may  be 
reinforced. 

-9- 


130  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  What  regulates  the  position  of  the  supports, 
aud  Avhat  should  be  its  general  requirements? 

A.  The  ground  regulates  their  position,  as  they 
should  occui)y  the  line  of  resistance.  The  position 
selected  should  afford  a  good  general  line  of  defense, 
ground  uniformly  moderately  good  being  preferable 
to  that  which  is  very  strong  in  some  parts  and  weak  in 
others.  The  supports  should  not  be  too  far  away 
from  the  pickets  to  render  timely  aid,  nor  so  close  as 
to  be  involved  in  their  defeat  if  suddenly  driven  in. 
They  should  be  located  as  centrally  as  practicable 
in  reference  to  the  pickets  in  their  front,  and  should 
preferably  be  upon,  or  near,  the  main  routes  by  which 
the  enemy  might  advance.  Sometimes  the  best  line 
of  resistance  lies  close  to  the  line  of  observation,  or 
even  coincides  with  it.  In  such  cases  the  supports 
may  be  close  to  the  pickets  or  merged  with  them. 
One  support  is  generally  sufficient  for  two  or  three 
pickets. 

Q.  What  is  required  of  the  men  composing  the 
snpport? 

A.  The  support  should  have  one  or  more  sentinels 
or  vedettes  posted  the  same  as  a  picket,  but  may  relax 
to  some  extent  the  watchfulness  exacted  from  the 
pickets.  The  men  stack  arms  and  are  allowed  to  re- 
move their  accouterments  (excepting  always  the 
cartridge-belt),  but  they  are  not  permitted  to  wander 
away  from  the  post  of  the  support,  and  must  be  ready 
at  all  times  to  fall  in.  The}^  are  usually  allowed  to 
light  fires,  and  may  be  required  to  do  the  cooking  for 
the  pickets  as  well  as  themselves.  The  horses  with 
the  support  are  kept  in  the  same  degree  of  readiness 
as  those  with  the  pickets.     No  shouting  or  unneces- 


Sentinels  and  Pickets.  131 

sary  noise  of  any  kind  should  be  permitted  in  any  part 
of  the  outpost. 

Q.     What  are  Cossack  posts? 

A.  They  are  small  posts  sent  cut  directly  from 
the  supports.  Each  of  these  posts  consists  of  four 
men;  namely,  three  reliefs  of  a  single  sentinel,  and  a 
non-commissioned  officer  or  old  soldier  for  the  com- 
mand of  the  post. 

Q.  How  many  Cossack  posts  are  furnished  by 
each  support,  and  how  are  they  placed? 

A.  ICach  support  furuishes  from  four  to  twelve 
Cossack  posts,  which  are  placed  from  300  to  400  yards 
in  advance  of  it,  and  from  100  to  300  yards  apart;  the 
smaller  limit  of  distance  in  the  case  of  very  close  and 
rugged  ground,  and  the  latter  in  the  case  of  very  open 
ground.  The  sentinel  is  stationed  from  10  to  30 
yards  in  advance  of  the  post,  the  other  members  of 
w^hich  remain  concealed  and  keep  him  constantly  in 
view.     (See  Tlate  10.) 

Q.  How  often  are  the  sentinels  and  posts  relieved, 
and  how  is  the  patrolling  done 

A.  The  sentinels  are  relieved  every  hour  and  the 
post  every  three  hours.  One  or  tw^o  men  may  be  sent 
from  the  post  from  time  to  time,  to  patrol  to  the  post 
on  either  side;  but,  as  a  rule,  all  the  patrolling  is  done 
from  the  support. 

Q.  f^hould  either  the  picket  system  or  Cossack 
posts  be  exclusively  employed? 

A.  Not  as  a  rule.  A  combination  of  the  two  is 
usually  preferable.  If  a  wood  or  a  broken  piece  of 
ground  exists  in  the  line,  Cossack  posts  would  gen- 
erally be  more  suitable;  but  on  the  open  ground  the 
picket  system  would  usually  be  preferable. 


132 


Elements  of  Military  Science. 


FIG.  1    

UNE  OF  OBSERVATION-2400  YAf^os 

>r-  -*V         \  /  \    /  ^--^*. 

'    \     \  V  PICKETS  y  8     y''     .-> 

\..  /  \  y 

*^jA      SUPPORTS     yy 
RESERVE 


—   FIQ.  2       

^\NE  OF  OBSERVATION-2400  V^^j^S 
COSSACK        POSTS 

.    ; -t-:-:^ •v-v-4-.-; 

\      ' 


NA //       SUPPORTS         -aI/'-^^' 


//>> 


^w 


\    / 

\/ 

RESERVE 


Plate  10. 


Sentinels  and  Pichcts.  133 

Q.  What  does  the  reserve  constitute,  and  of  what 
does  it  generally  consist? 

A.  It  constitutes  the  general  support  and  pivot  of 
resistance  of  the  whole  outpost,  and  usually  consists 
of  all  three  arms. 

Q.  AVliat  considerations  influence  the  selection  of 
its  position? 

A.  It  should  be  concealed  from  the  enemy,  and 
should  be  poeited  as  centrally  as  practicable,  so  as  to 
enable  it  to  move  quickly  to  any  endangered  point. 
It  may  sometimes  be  divided  i'  to  two  parts,  to  facili- 
tate supporting  the  more  advanced  bodies;  and  it 
should  be  upon  the  prinicpal  line  or  lim  s  '  f  retreat  to 
the  main  body. 

Q.  What  rules  obtain  in  regard  to  the  men  and 
horses  of  the  reserve? 

A.  The  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  supports.  The 
reserve  is  allowed  to  light  fires;  and  in  the  exceptional 
cases  where  fii'es  are  prohibited  to  the  more  advanced 
parties,  it  must  do  the  cooking  for  them. 

Q.     When  may  the  reserve  be  dispersed  with? 

A.  In  the  case  of  a  small  force  which  can  prepare 
(quickly  for  action,  or  when  the  main  body  bivouacs 
in  ord(^r  of  battle,  the  reserve  may  sometimes  be  dis- 
j)ensed  with. 

Q.  What  is  the  objection  to  retaining  the  cordon 
system  at  night? 

A.  It  would  be  necessary  either  to  increase  the 
number  of  sentinels  greatly,  thus  adding  to  the  burden 
of  outpost  duty,  or  else  to  draw  in  the  outpost  line 
closer  to  the  main  body,  thus  contracting  the  front. 

Q.  What  system  is  generally  adopted,  in  its  es- 
sential features,  at  night;  and  on  what  is  it  based? 


134  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  The  outpost  system  of  Marshal  Bugeaud  is 
generally  adopted  in  its  essential  features  for  night. 
This  is  based  on  the  idea  that  in  making  a  night  at- 
tack, in  any  but  an  exceptionally  open  country,  the 
enemy's  movements  must  necessarily  be  confined  to 
roads  and  clearly  defined  paths. 

Q.  Give  the  important  details  of  the  outpost  sys- 
tem at  night. 

A.  If  double  sentinels  are  placed  on  the  roads 
and  paths,  and  closely  backed  up  by  their  reliefs,  the 
advanced  posts  thus  formed  will  give  timely  warning 
of  the  enemy's  approach  in  force.  But  the  intervening 
ground  must  not  be  neglected,  or  hostile  patrols  might 
push  through  and  reconnoiter  the  position.  The 
ground  between  the  sentinels  is,  therefore,  thoroughly 
patrolled,  the  number  of  men  available  for  this  pur- 
pose being  increased  by  the  diminution  of  the  number 
of  sentinel  posts.  Nothing  more  than  careful  obser- 
vation and  warning  should  be  expected  of  the  ad- 
vanced posts,  the  duty  of  resistance  falling  first  upon 
the  pickets,  w^hich  should  be  nearer  the  sentinels  at 
night  than  during  the  day,  and  should  be  in  strong 
defensive  positions  on  the  roads,  in  rear  of  the  ad- 
vanced posts  furnished  by  them.  , 

Q.  In  cavalry  outx)Osts,  where  are  the  pickets 
posted  at  night,  and  what  precautions  are  taken? 

A.  In  cavalry  outposts,  the  pickets  are  placed  on 
the  roads,  double  vedettes  being  pushed  out  in  front. 
The  picket  must  be  on  the  alert  and  prepared  to  fight 
on  foot.  Its  position  may  be  strengthened  by  bar- 
ricading the  road ;  but  care  must  be  taken  to  leave  a 
passage  by  which  the  vedettes  may  retire,  and  the  bar- 
cle  to  the  advance  of  the  troops  in  rear. 


Sentinels  and  Pickets.  135 

ricade  must  not  be  so  constructed  as  to  prove  an  obsta- 

Q.  When  are  the  changes  in  the  position  of  the 
outpost  arranged  and  made? 

A.  All  changes  in  the  position  of  the  outpost 
must  be  arranged  during  daylight,  and  made  at  late 
dusk.  Even  if  the  cordon  system  is  retained  and  the 
line  is  not  drawn  in,  the  positions  of  the  sentinels  and 
pickets  should  be  changed,  in  order  to  prevent  their 
possible  capture  by  the  enemy,  who  may  have,  noted 
their  positions  during  the  day. 

Q.  What  change  is  made  in  the  positions  of  the 
sentinels  for  night? 

A.  The  sentinels,  who  are  habitually  posted  on 
high  ground  during  the  day,  should  be  moved  to  lower 
ground  at  night,  so  as  to  bring  an  approaching  enemy 
in  view  on  the  skv  line. 


136  Elements  of  Militanj  Scie?ice. 


CHAPrER  IV. 

Outpost  Patrols. — How  Outposts  are  Posted 
AND  Relieved. 

Q.     Of  what  two  kinds  are  the  outpost  patrols? 

A.     Visiting  patrols    and   reconnoitering   patrols. 

Q.  What  are  the  composition  and  duties  of  a  vis- 
iting patrol? 

A.  Visiting  patrols  usually  consist  of  a  non-com- 
missioned officer  and  two  or  three  men.  They  are 
gent  out  from  the  picket,  and  keep  up  communication 
between*it  and  its  sentinels  and  detached  posts,  the 
neighboring  pickets,  and  the  support.  They  examine 
any  suspicious  points  which  the  sentinel  can  not  in 
spect  without  going  too  far  away  from  his  post,  take 
charge  of  persons  detained  by  the  sentinels,  and  re- 
lieve any  sentinel  who  may  be  sick  or  wounded. 

Q.  When  are  visiting  patrols  mainly  used,  and 
what  extent  of  front  do  they  cover? 

A.  Visiting  ])atrols  are  mainly  used  at  night. 
AVhen  the  sentinels  can  be  seen  from  the  picket,  the 
patrol  would  not  ordinarily  make  the  rounds,  during 
the  day,  oftener  than  once  each  relief.  At  night,  the 
patrol  should  not  cover  a  front  of  more  than  500  yards 
in  its  operations.  When  the  picket  is  weak,  the  re- 
liefs must  be  used  as  visiting  patrols. 

Q.     What  is  the  object  of  reconnoitering  patrols? 

A.  The  sentinels  guard  against  surprise,  but  the 
information  they  can  gain  in  regard  to  the  enemy 
is  generally  very  slight.  This  information  must  be 
sought  by  reconnoitering  patrols  sent  out  towards  the 


Outpost  Patrols.  137 

enemy,  to  watch  his  movements,  and,  if  possible,  ex- 
amine his  position. 

Q.  What  is  the  size  of  reconnoitering  patrols,  and 
how  far  do  they  go  beyond  the  line  of  sentinels? 

A.  Reconnoitering  patrols  are  either  small  or 
strong.  A  small  patrol  varies  in  size  from  three  men 
to  a  s(|uad.  If  composed  of  infantry,  it  should  not,  as 
a  rule,  advance  more  than  half  a  mile  beyond  the  line 
of  sentinels  at  night;  in  daytime  it  may  often  prudent- 
ly advance  farther.  Cavalry  is  generally  used  for  this 
duty  by  day,  and  may  push  out  five  or  ten  miles,  or 
even  farther,  according  to  the  discretion  of  the  patrol 
commander. 

Q.  What  patrols  should  be  used  at  night,  and 
what  must  be  constantly  varied  in  regard  to  them? 

A.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  use  at  night  the  patrols 
that  have  scouted  the  same  region  by  day.  The  time, 
direction,  and  manner  of  sending  out  i)atrols  must  be 
constantly  varied,  in  order  that  the  enemy  may  not  be 
prepared  to  cut  them  otf.  A  small  patrol  must  con- 
stantly bear  in  mind  that  its  business  is  not  to  fight, 
but  to  observe.  It  should  accordingly  be  careful  to 
avoid  engagements,  unless  ordered  to  take  ])risoners. 

Q.  When  is  the  duty  of  a  reconnoitering  patrol 
best  performed? 

A.  When  it  comes  back  with  valuable  informa- 
tion without  having  been  seen  by  the  enemy. 

Q.     What  are  patrolling  posts? 

A.  They  are  small  patrols,  of  four  men  each, 
which  are  sometimes  used  at  night  instead  of  the  ad- 
vanced posts  in  front  of  the  pickets. 

Q.  How^  does  the  patrolling  post  perform  its 
duties? 


138  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  It  must  not  leave  the  road  or  path  assigned  to 
it;  but  it  may  either  keep  moving  or  remain  stationary 
at  the  distance  to  which  it  is  ordered  to  patrol.  In  the 
latter  case  a  sentinel  or  vedette  is  posted  and  the  rest 
of  the  patrol  remains  near  at  hand  and  well  concealed. 

Q.  From  what  part  of  the  outpost  are  strong 
patrols  taken,  and  how  do  they  .vary  ia  size? 

A.  They  are  generally  taken  from  the  support  or 
reserve.  They  vary  in  size  from  nine  men  to  a  com- 
pany or  troop;  and  if  composed  of  less  than  two 
squads,  may  be  taken  from  a  picket. 

Q.  How  far  from  the  line  of  sentinels  may  a 
strong  patrol  advance,  and  how  may  it  sometimes  be 
used 

A.  As  a  rule,  the  movements  of  a  strong  patrol 
are  not  so  <  autious  as  those  of  a  small  one.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  gain  information  that  can  not  be  acquired  by 
sentinels  or  small  patrols.  It  rarely  goes  more  than 
a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  line  of  sentinels,  and  if  com- 
posed of  infantry,  it  should  have  one  or  two  mounted 
men  (or  cyclists,  in  suitable  country)  with  it  to  insure 
the  rapid  transmission  of  intelligence  back  to  the  out- 
post. If  the  patrols  return  without  reporting  any- 
thing, vigilance  must  not  be  relaxed;  for  it  is  possible 
for  patrols  to  take  a  wrong  direction,  or  to  pass  close 
to  the  enemy  without  discovering  him. 

Q.  With  what  should  the  men  detailed  for  out- 
post duty  be  supplied? 

A.  They  should  have  a  proper  supply  of  ammuni- 
tion, and  (when  practicable)  one  day's  cooked  rations. 
Their  canteens  should  be  filled  with  coffee. 

Q.     How  is  the  posting  of  the  outpost  conducted? 

A,     The   troops   detailed   having   been   inspected, 


Outpost  Patrols.'  139 

and  the  subordinate  officers  having  taken  down  in 
writing  the  instructions  of  the  outpost  commander  (if 
time  admits),  the  force  moves  out,  with  an  advance 
guard,  to  take  up  the  designated  positions.  The  re- 
serve and  supports  may  each  march  independently 
from  the  camp  directly  to  its  position;  or  they  may 
march  together  and  be  detached  from  the  column 
at  suitable  points.  Each  body  moves  to  its  position 
covered  by  a  point  and  Hanking  groups,  and  the  pick- 
ets especially  *move  with  extreme  vigilance.  When 
the  i)icket  is  halted,  slightly  in  rear  of  the  selected  line 
of  observation,  two  or  more  squads  are  deployed  as 
skirmishers,  with  sufficient  intervals  to  enable  their 
front  to  cover  approximately  the  front  of  the  sentinels 
of  the  j)icket,  and  are  pushed  forward  cautiously  to 
reconnoiter,  being  followed  by  the  first  relief  of  senti- 
nels. The  picket  commander  halts  on  the  line  of  ob- 
servation, and  the  skirmishers  move  on  to  reconnoiter 
in  its  front,  not  going  farther  than  100  yards  if  the 
country  is  close  or  wooded.  When  the  relief  comes 
up,  the  picket  commander  posts  the  sentinels  quickly, 
the  posts  afterwards  being  changed  as  maybe  required. 
Any  tree,  building,  haystack,  or  other  object  afford- 
ing a  good  view  should  be  occupied  at  once  as  a  look- 
out by  two  men,  one  of  whom  should,  if  practicable, 
be  ])rovided  with  a  field-glass.  As  soon  as  the  senti- 
nels haA'e  been  tentatively  posted,  the  skirmishers  are 
recalled  and  sent  back  to  the  picket;  after  which  the 
picket  commander  touches  upon  the  nearest  sentinel 
of  the  picket  on  his  right  (or  left),  and  passes  along 
his  own  line  of  observation  to  the  nearest  sentinel  of 
the  picket  on  his  left  (or  right).  He  assures  himself 
that  his  sentinels  are  in  positions  best  suited  for  obser- 


140  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

vation  and  concealment,  sees  that  the  number  of 
I)osts  does  not  exceed  the  requirements  of  efficient 
observation,  and  then  returns  to  his  picket.  He  then 
posts  such  connecting  and  picket  sentinels  and  de- 
tached posts  as  ma}'  be  necessary,  details  a  i)ortion  of 
the  picket  for  patrol  duty,  orders  the  picket  to  stack 
arms  and  fall  out,  and  sends  to  fhe  commander  of  the 
outpost  or  section  a  report  of  his  position  and  disposi- 
tions, accompanied,  if  practicable,  with  a  hasty  sketch 
or  map  of  the  same. 

Q.  After  the  picket  is  posted,  what  does  its  com- 
mander do? 

A.  After  the  picket  commander  has  sent  in  his  first 
report,  he  visits  his  detached  posts,  and  makes  such  in- 
spection of  the  ground  as  may  be  necessary  to  famil- 
iarize him  with  the  roads,  paths,  and  other  topograph- 
ical features  of  his  position,  but  should  not  go  beyond 
reach  of  his  ])icket.  If  he  has  not  a  maj)  of  the  i)Osi- 
tion,  he  should  make  or  have  made  as  good  a  one  as 
he  can  for  reference,  report,  and  giving  instructions 
to  subordinates.  If  streams  or  other  obstacles  exist 
in  front  of  his  position,  he  ascertains  at  what  points 
they  are  passable;  and  he, must  satisfy  himself  that 
the  picket  occupies  a  post  fulfilling,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  requirements  already  set  forth.  He  takes  such 
measures  in  regard  to  strengthening  his  position  as 
may  be  required  by  circumstances  and  be  in  conso- 
nance with  orders  received  by  him.  He  must  be 
especially  careful  to  see  that  the  picket  post  at  night 
is  prepared  for  a  stubborn  defense;  and  he  must,  at  all 
times,  consider  what  he  would  do  in  case  of  attack. 

Q.  When,  at  the  close  of  the  day's  march,  the  ad- 
vance guard  forms  the  outpost,  what  portions  of  it 
constitute  the  various  parts  of  the  outpost? 


Outpost  Patrols.  141 

A.  The  advance  party  then  furnishes  the  pickets 
and  sentinels  (being  reinforced,  if  necessary,  from  the 
supj)ort  until  the  two  bodies  are  ecjual  in  strength); 
the  support  furnishes  the  supports;  and  the  reserve 
constitutes  the  reserve  of  the  outpost.  When  the 
phice  for  camp  or  bivouac  is  selected,  the  advance 
guard  marches  to  its  post  as  an  outpost  in  the  same 
general  manner  as  though  detailed  from  camp. 

Q.     How  is  the  defense  of  an  outpost  conducted? 

A.  The  outpost  should,  as  a  rule,  avoid  unneces- 
sary movements  tending  to  bring  on  an  engagement; 
but  if  attacked,  it  should  resist  stubbornly,  in  order  to 
give  the  main  body  time  to  prepare  for  action.  The 
chief  resistance  is  generally  nmde  on  the  line  of  sup- 
j)orts,  though  in  some  cases  it  may  be  best  for  the  sup- 
ports to  advance  to  the  line  of  pickets.  In  the  former 
case,  the  picket  usually  deploys  as  skirmishers,  and 
advances  to  reinforce  the  line  of  sentinels;  the  whole 
line  then  falling  back  slowly  upon  the  supports,  tak- 
ing advantage  of  every  defensive  feature  of  the 
ground,  and  fighting  resolutely.  In  order  that  the 
tire  of  the  support  may  not  be  masked,  the  pickets  will 
direct  their  retreat  upon  its  flanks,  instead  of  falling 
directly  back  upon  it.  The  skirmishers  then  form  on 
a  line  with  the  skirmishers  of  the  support.  In  the  lat- 
ter case,  the  pickets  should  be  intrenched.  The  sen- 
tinels fall  back  upon  them,  moving  towards  their 
flanks  to  unmask  their  fire;  and  the  supports  are 
brought  up  and  deployed  in  the  intervals  between  the 
I)ickets.  In  either  case,  the  reserve  is  brought  up  to 
reinforce  the  troops  in  front,  as  soon  a*s  the  nature  and 
direction  of  the  attack  become  apparent. 

Q.  When  should  the  pickets  be  under  arms,  and 
why? 


142  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  They  should  be  under  arms  an  hour  before  day- 
break, as  an  attack  is  most  likely  to  occur  at  dawn. 

Q.     When  is  the  outpost  relieved? 

A.  The  outpost  is  relieved  at  daybreak,  in  order 
that  there  may  be  double  strength  on  the  outpost  line 
at  the  time  when  an  attack  is  most  to  be  feared. 

Q.     Describe  the  manner  of  relieving  the  outpost. 

A.  The  new  reserve  marches  to  the  post  of  the  old 
one,  where  both  rest  with  arms  stacked,  and  the  new 
commander  receives  from  the  old  all  information 
possessed  by  the  latter  in  regard  to  the  enemy,  and 
the  standing  orders  for  the  reserve.  Each  support 
marches  to  the  post  of  the  support  which  it  is  to  re- 
lieve, and  both  supports  rest,  while  information  and 
orders  are  turned  over  as  in  the  case  of  the  reserves. 
When  a  new  picket  arrives  to  relieve  an  old  one,  each 
stands  at  ease  while  the  new  and  the  old  commanders 
visit  the  sentinels'  posts  together,  followed  by  the  first 
relief  from  the  new  picket.  The  old  commander 
points  out  to  the  new  the  important  topographical 
features  of  the  vicinity,  and  the  known  or  suspected 
positions  of  the  hostile  posts;  and  gives  him  all  the 
information  that  has  been  gained  in  regard  to  the 
enemy. 

When  the  old  sentinels  and  detached  posts  have 
been  relieved,  the  commander  of  the  old  picket  sends 
in  a  written  report  to  the  commander  of  the  outpost  or 
section,  and  (unless  there  appears  to  be  danger  of  an 
attack)  marches  his  picket  back  to  its  support.  As 
soon  as  the  support  has  been  joined  by  its  pickets,  it 
marches  back  to  its  reserve,  and  the  entire  old  outpost 
returns  to  camp;  or  each  support  may  march  directK 
back  to  camp  as  soon  as  it  is  joined  by  its  pickets.     If, 


Outpost  Patrols.  143 

while  the  old  outpost,  or  any  part  of  it,  is  returning, 
the  enemy  should  attack,  it  must  be  at  once  marched 
back  to  the  assistance  of  the  new  outpost. 

Q.     How  often  are  outposts  relieved? 

A.  As  a  rule,  outposts  should  be  relieved  every 
twenty-four  hours. 

Q.  If  the  army  is  on  the  march,  when  is  the  out- 
post relieved? 

A.  As  soon  as  the  advance  guard  has  passed  the 
chain  of  sentinels.  The  pickets  will  not,  as  a  rule, 
fall  back  to  the  supports,  but  will  join  them  at  some 
designated  ])oint  on  tlie  line  of  march,  in  order  to  save 
the  fatigued  men  from  unnecessary  marching.  The 
reserve  follows  the"  rear  of  the  column,  and  the  sup- 
})orts  and  pickets,  united  at  designated  rendezvous, 
form  the  rear  guard  of  the  column. 

Q.  If  the  army  is  retreating,  what  does  the  out- 
post form? 

A.  If  the  army  is  retreating,  the  outpost  each  day 
(when  practicable)  forms  the  rear  guard. 


144  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Reconnaissance. — Kinds  of  Patrols. 

Q.     What  is  tlie  object  of  reconnaissance? 

A.  To  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  strength,  position, 
and  probable  designs  of  the  enemy,  upon  which  the 
commander  can  base  his  own  plans. 

Q.  Under  what  three  heads  may  reconnaissance 
be  considered? 

A.     1.     Reconnaissance  in  force; 

2.  Special  reconnaissance; 

3.  ]*atrolling. 
Q.     By  whose  order,  and  how,  is  a  reconnaissance 

in  force  made? 

A.  Only  by  the  orders  of  the  commander-in-chief, 
and  the  force  employed  generally  consists  of  all  three 
arms.  They  are  often  made  just  before  an  action,  for 
the  purpose  of  discovering  the  enemy's  strength  and 
dispositions,  and  frequently  lead  to  a  battle.  The 
reconnaissance  is  conducted  in  the  same  general  man- 
ner as  a  regular  attack. 

Q.  \Miat  arms  are  especially  valuable  in  recon- 
naissance in  force,  and  why? 

A.  Cavalry  and  horse  artillery  are  especially 
valuable  in  a  reconnaissance  in  force,  as  they  can  be 
withdrawn  from  action  more  easily  than  infantry ;  and 
it  would  be  well  to  limit  the  reconnaissance  to  these 
two  arms  when  they  are  in  ample  force,  and  circum- 
stances render  their  action  sufficient.  To  be  success- 
ful, however,  a  reconnaissance  in  force  should  impose 
upon  the  enemy  the  belief  that  he  is  encountering  a 


Reconnaissance.  145 

real  attack;  and  this  consideration  will  determine  the 
kind  of  troops  to  employ  and  the  hour  at  which  the 
attack  should  made.  If  infantry  be  employed  in  the 
attack,  it  will  he  hard  to  break  off  the  action;  but  if  it 
be  not  emi)loyed,  it  will  generally  be  manifest  that  the 
attack  is  not  serious. 

Q.  AVhat  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  making  a  reconnaissance  in  force  in  the  evening, 
and  what  in  the  morning? 

A.  If  it  be  made  late  in  the  afternoon,  the  troops 
may  be  withdrawn  under  cover  of  the  darkness;  but 
if  made  at  that  hour,  the  enemy  will  probably  suspect 
the  true  nature  of  the  operation.  If  made  in  the 
luorning,  the  enemy  will  doubtless  believe  it  to  be  a 
serious  attack;  but  it  may  very  easily  precipitate  a 
battle. 

Q.  To  what  three  serious  objections  is  a  recon- 
naissance in  force  open?    " 

A.  1.  It  often  results  in  committing  the  troops 
so  completely  to  action  as  to  bring  on  a  battle  through 
the  necessity  of  bringing  up  other  troops  to  their 
assistance. 

2.  The  withdrawal  of  the  troops  in  pursuance  to 
the  general  plan  of  the  reconnaissance  may  often  pre- 
sent the  a]>pearance  of  defeat,  and  thus  injure  the 
morale  of  the  army. 

8.  It  is  always  a  costly  means  of  gaining  infor- 
mation. 

Q.     What  is  special  reconnaisance? 

A.  Reconnaissances  of  this  class  have  some  lim- 
ited and  definite  object  in  view:  to  discover  whether 
a  certain  point  is  occupied  in  force  by  the  enemy; 
whether  a  bridge  is  broken,  or  a  defile  is  fortified;  to 

-10- 


146  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

capture  a  picket,  with  a  view  to  gaining  information; 
or  to  attack  a  post  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the 
intentions  or  morale  of  the  enemy. 

Q.     How  is  a  special  reconnaissance  conducted? 

A.  It  may  be  effected  secretly,  by  a  bold  attack 
on  a  picket,  by  personal  daring,  or  by  any  means 
which  will  carry  out  the  object  in  view. 

Q.  How  may  a  force  employed  on  a  special  recon- 
naissance vary  in  size? 

A.  The  force  employed  in  a  special  reconnais- 
sance varies  in  size  from  a  company  or  troop  to  a 
division.  The  dividing  line  between  a  special  recon- 
naissance and  a  reconnaissance  in  force  is  often  very 
dim,  and  in  many  cases  the  same  operation  could  be 
designated  by  either  term. 

Q.  How  are  patrols  primarily  divided,  and  how 
does  each  vary  in  size? 

A.  Patrols  are  divided  into  smail  patrols  and 
strong  patrols.  A  strong  patrol  varies  in  strength 
from  nine  men  to  a  troop  of  cavalry  or  a  company  of 
infantry.  A  small  patrol  varies  from  three  men  to  a 
squad.  A  patrol  should  never  consist  of  less  than 
three  men. 

Q.  Patrols  are  also  classified  as  what  kind? 
State  briefly  the  duties  of  each. 

A.  They  are  als'o  classified  as  officers^  reconnoiter- 
ing,  visiting,  covering  (flanking),  and  connecting  patrols. 
To  these  may  be  added  exploring,  harassing,  expedition- 
ary, and  pursuing  patrols.  The  classification  into 
small  and  strong  patrols  is  the  important  one;  for 
without  changing  its  size,  and  witliout  material  modi- 
fication of  its  methods,  the  patrol  may  combine  the 
functions  of  several  of  the  different  kinds  of  patrols 


Reconnaissance.  147 

contained  in  the  second  classification.  In  fact,  the 
latter  classification  is  mainly  for  convenience  of 
.description. 

Q.     For  what  purpose  are  exploring  patrols  used? 

A.  To  explore  the  region  over  which  the  troops 
are  to  operate.  They  report  the  condition  of  roads, 
railroads,  bridges,  rivers,  woods,  canals,  telegraphs, 
villages,  defiles,  ponds  and  marshes,  springs  and  rivu- 
lets, valleys,  heights,  etc. 

Q.     What  should  a  patrol  of  any  nature  always  do? 

A.  A  patrol  of  any  nature  should  endeavor  to  note 
carefully  the  different  features  of  the  ground  over 
which  it  passes,  whether  required  to  make  a  report 
or  not.  In  every  case  a  railroad  embankment,  a  ditch,  or 
any  other  object  that  would  furnish  a  good  defensive  position, 
should  be  noted.  Good  camping-places  should  also 
always  be  noted  by  exploring  patrols. 

Q.     What  are  reconnoitering  patrols? 

A.  Beconnoitering  patrols  are  used  to  reconnoiter 
the  position  and  watch  the  movements  of  the  enemy. 

Q.     W^hat  are  harassing  patrols? 

A.  Harassing  patrols  are  for  the  purpose  of  disturb 
ing  and  annoying  the  enemy,  and  thus  depriving  him 
of  sleep  and  rest. 

Q.     What  are  expeditionary  patrols? 

A .  Expeditionary  patrols  have  for  their  mission  the 
capture  of  sentinels  or  patrols,  or  the  destruction  of 
roads,  railroads,  or  telegraphs. 

Q.     What  are  connecting  patrols? 

A.  Connecting  patrols  are  used  to  preserve  com- 
munication between  columns  of  troops  on  the  march 
or  between  different  bodies  in  battle. 

Q.     What  are  pursuing  patrols? 


148  Elemeiits  of  Military  Science. 

A.  Pursuing  patrols  hang  upon  a  retreating  en- 
emy, and  render  prompt  information  as  to  his  move- 
ments, location,  and  morale. 

Q.  What  is  the  size  of  the  ditferent  kinds  of 
patrols? 

A.  Exploring,  reconnoitering,  harassing,  expedi- 
tionary, and  pursuing  patrols  may  be  either  strong  or 
snmJl;  connecting  patrols  are  always  strong. 

Q.  What  arm  is  generally  best  suited  to  patrol- 
ling, and  why  is  the  union  of  infantry  and  cavalry  on 
this  duty  not  desirable? 

A.  Cavalry  is  the  best  arm  for  patro^lling.  The 
composition  of  the  patrol  will,  however,  depend  upon 
the  ground  to  be  reconuoitered,  the  distance  to  which 
the  reconnaissance  is  to  be  extended,  and  the  hour  at 
wiiich  the  patrol  is  sent  out.  Infantry  is  jjreferable 
to  cavalry  for  patrolling  only  at  night,  or  in  a  very 
close  and  broken  country.  It  is  often  advisable  to 
attach  a  few  troopers  to  an  infantry  patrol  merely  as 
mounted  orderlies,  but  no  further  union  of  the  two 
arms  on  this  service  should  ordinarily  be  contem- 
plated. When  bicyclists  are  with  a  command,  they 
will,  on  good  roads,  be  valuable  for  patrolling. 

Q.  What  is  the  composition  of  a  small  infantry 
patrol? 

A.  Experienced  soldiers  should  be  detailed,  and 
if  no  non-commissioned  officer  is  available,  an  intelli- 
gent private  should  be  selected  to  command  the  patrol, 
and  the  others  ordered  to  obey  him.  It  is  desirable 
that  at  least  one  member  of  the  patrol  should  be  able 
to  speak  the  language  of  the  country  in  which  the 
army  is  operating. 

Q.     How  should  the  patrol  be  instructed? 


Beconnaissance.  149 

A.  The  patrol  commander  should  be  given  clear 
and  definite  instructions  in  regard  to  the  object  of  the 
reconnaissance,  what  is  known  about  the  enemey,  the 
nature  of  the  ground  to  be  reconnoitered,  whether  he 
is  to  reconnoiter  in  one  direction  or  in  several,  how 
long  he  is  to  remain  out,  where  his  reports  are  to  be 
sent,  and,  if  other  patrols  are  sent  out  at  the  same 
time,  the  particular  route  which  he  is  to  follow. 

Q.     How  should  the  patrol  be  inspected? 

A.  The  patrol  commander  inspects  the  patrol,  be- 
ing careful  that  each  man  has  the  proper  amount  of 
ammunition,  and  that  none  are  sick,  intoxicated,  or 
foot-sore.  He  also  sees  that  the  arms  and  accouter- 
ments  of  his  men  are  so  arranged  as  neither  to  rattle 
nor  glisten  in  the  sunlight. 

Q.  How  should  the  members  of  a  patrol  communi- 
cate with  one  another? 

A.  By  signals,  either  those  of  the  Drill  Regula- 
tions, or  any  other  found  suitable;  and  by  whistle. 

Q.  Every  patrol  should  have  what  general  for- 
mation? 

A.  The  patrol  should  have  the  general  formation 
of  main^  body,  advance  guard,  rear  guard,  and  flank 
ers,  tn^en  when  each  can  be  represented  by  only  one 
man.  On  nearing  the  enemy,  the  patrol  should  gener- 
ally extend  in  line  to  facilitate  observation.  Figures  1 
to  G,  Plate  11,  give  typical  formations  of  a  small 
patrol.* 


*It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  typical  formations  are  merely 
hints,  the  formation  of  the  patrol  alwavs  depending  upon  its  object,  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  and  the  character  and  position  of  the  enemy. 


150 


Elements  of  Military  Science. 
PATROLS. 


4 


Fiff. 


—  FiUf.3. 


3  rncn. 


4 


Di^tarvces  and.  tntervcUs  vart^  from, 
2S  Lj  loo  ijanJs  acconiing  to  circumstances . 


—  FLg.4 


-Fig.6: 


4  4 


**    * 


V    * 


6  ntjftrt. 


7  men. 


8  rrijen- 


Fy.a-~ 
*     if 


Ftg.9  — 


RearGuard 

16  men,  marcMmy  cdonx 
road  with,  pasacufK   on, 
tke  OanJc 


Plate  11, 


Duties  of  the  Patrol.  151 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Duties  of  the  Patrol.  —Special  Cases  of 
r  econ  noite  ring . 

Q.  -  What  is  the  only  definite  rule  that  can  be  laid 
down  for  the  formation  of  a  patrol? 

A.  The  only  definite  rule  that  can  be  laid  down  is 
the  following:  The  'patrol  must  always  be  so  formed  as 
to  facilitate  the  gaining  of  information,  and  to  insure,  if 
possible,  the  escape  of  at  least  one  man,  if  the  patrol  should  he 
cut  off.     Any  disposition  that  complies  with  this  rule  is  right. 

Q.  What  considerations  influence  the  distances 
and  intervals  between  the  members  of  a  patrol,  and 
what  are  generally  the  minimum  and  maximum  dis- 
tances? 

A.  The  distances  and  intervals  depend  ui)on  cir- 
cumstances. They  are  rarely  less  than  twenty-five  or 
more  than  one  hundred  yards.  The  men  should  be 
close  enough  to  see  and  hear  each  other's  signals,  and 
for  mutual  support.  On  the  other  hand,  they  should 
not  so  crowd  together  that  the  patrol  could  not  see 
more  than  a  single  man  could. 

Q.  Of  what  should  the  point  generally  consist? 
how  are  the  signals  to  and  from  the  commander  trans- 
mitted, and  how  is  the  patrol  assembled? 

A.  The  point  should,  when  practicable,  consist  of 
two  men,  in  order  that  one  may  scout  vigilantly  to- 
wards the  enemy  while  the  other  watches  for  signals 
from  the  men  on  the  right  and  left  and  from  the  com- 
mander. The  signals  from  the  other  members  of  the 
patrol  are  generally  transmitted  to  the  commander 


152  Elcnienls  of  MiliUtrjj  Science. 

thi'ougli  the  point.  To  assemble  the  patrol,  the  com- 
mander signals  to  the  })oint  to  halt,  and  moves  up  to 
it,  followed  by  the  rear  guard  man.  The  other  men  at 
on(3e  close  in  on  the  point,  conforming  their  pace  to 
that  of  the  commander. 

Q.     How  does  the  jiatrol  move? 

A.  The  patrol  moves  cautiously,  hut  not  timidly, 
along  hedges,  walls,  ditches,  ravines,  etc.,  seeking  in 
every  way  to  see  without  being  seen.  It  halts-  fre- 
quently to  listen,  and  to  make  careful  observation  of 
the  ground. 

Q.     How  should  a  patrol  generally  return? 

A.  It  is  advisable  for  a  patrol  to  return  by  a  dif- 
ferent route  from  the  one  followed  on  advance,  if  it 
be  practicable  for  it  to  do  so,  as  it  thus  extends  its 
reconnaissance  and  lessens  the  danger  of  being  cut  off. 

Q.  What  should  the  patrol  do  in  regard  to  great 
roads? 

A.  (Jenerally,  Ihe  patrol  should  avoid  moving  on 
great  roads  and  entering  villages  and  inhabited  places. 
But  this  does  not  mean  that  observation  of  great  roads 
is  to  be  neglected.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  the  very 
ones  that  should  be  most  carefully  watched;  for  they 
are  the  routes  that  must  be  followed  by  any  bodies  of 
the  enemy  whose  movements  are  really  worth  report- 
ing. The  patrol,  while  moving  across  fields  and  along 
such  objects  as  have  been  already  mentioned,  should 
endeavor  to  keep  a  constant  watch  on  the  great  roads. 
Inhabited  places  should  be  carefully  observed,  but 
should  not  ordinarily  be  entered  by  a  small  patrol. 
At  night,  or  in  a  fog  or  snow-storm,  the  patrol  must  of 
necessity  m.ove  on  the  great  roads,  in  order  to  avoid 
losing  its  way,  unless  it  is  moving  over  ground  with 
which  it  is  perfectly  ffimiliar. 


Jhilies  of  the  Patrol.  153 

Q.  A\  liat  is  the  general  rule  in  regard  to  a  patrol 
halting? 

A.  The  patrol  should  not  halt  to  rest  before  its 
return,  unless  circumstances  render  it  imperatively 
necessary  to  do  so.  In  such  case,  it  should  rest  in 
concealment  in  some  place  which  offers  advantages  for 
defense,  and  from  which  a  retreat  can  be  easily 
effected. 

Q.  If  another  patrol  of  the  same  army  or  any 
friendly  force  is  met,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  The  patrol  commander  should  exchange  infor- 
mation with  it,  and  inform  himself  of  its  strength,  its 
destination,  and  the  name  of  its  commander,  in  order 
that  he  may  report  the  same  on  his  return. 

Q.  What  should  be  done  if  a  hostile  patrol  is 
discovered? 

A.  If  a  small  hostile  patrol  is  discovered^  it  is 
generally  better  to  remain  in  concealment  than  to 
attack;  for  the  noise  of  combat  might  cause  enough 
mischief  to  more  than  counter-balance  all  that  could 
be  gained  by  defeating  the  hostile  patrol,  even  if 
prisoners  were  captured.  If  the  patrol  is  discovered 
by  the  hostile  patrol,  and  finds  itself  unable  to  es- 
cape without  lighting,  it  should  attack  boldh',  and 
should  endeavor  to  take  prisoners.  If  the  hostile 
j>atrol  has  penetrated  so  far  as  to  make  it  probable 
that  it  has  gained  important"  information,  an  attempt 
should  be  made  to  ambuscade  and  capture  it.  If  sur 
prised,  a  patrol  should  fight  resolutely,  unless  the  en- 
emy were  in  such  force  as  to  make  resistance  hope- 
less. In  the  latei*  case,  or  if  defeated  in  any  case,  the 
patrol  should  dispei-se,  each  man  making  his  way  back 
to  the  rendezvous  designated  beforehand.     It  should 


154  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

then,  after  uniting,  continue  its  reconnaissance,  send- 
ing one  man  back  to  the  command  with  a  report.  It 
should  be  an  invariable  rule  not  to  quit  the  reconnais- 
sance until  some  result  has  been  obtained. 

Q.  What  shoi^ld  be  done  if  the  enemy  is  near  at 
hand  and  in  force? 

A.  If  the  enemy  is  near  at  hand  and  in  force,  the 
patrol  must  open  fire,  and  keep  up  a  lively  fusillade  in 
retreat,  as  the  only  means  of  giving  prompt  warning  of 
impending  danger. 

Q.  What  should  be  done  if  the  patrol  falls  into 
an  ambuscade,  and  what  if  a  hostile  sentinel  or  patrol 
is  suddenly  encountered  in  the  dark? 

A.  If,  notwithstanding  its  prudence,  the  patrol 
falls  into  an  ambuscade,  it  should  boldly  attack.  If 
a  sentinel  or  patrol  of  the  enemy  is  suddenly  encoun- 
tered in  the  dark,  no  answer  should  be  made  to  his 
challenge,  but  the  patrol  should  remain  halted  and 
silent.  The  enemy  may  think  himself  mistaken  and 
pay  no  further  attention.  If  the  challenge  is  repeated, 
the  patrol  should  sneak  away  as  quickly  as  possible, 
unless  it  has  orders  to  capture  prisoners,  in  which 
case  a  sudden  rush  upon  the  sentinel  might  enable  the 
patrol  to  overpower  him  and  carry  him  off  before  he 
could  receive  assistance.  If  some  members  of  the 
patrol  can  speak  the  language  of  the  sentinel,  they 
may  succeed  in  allaying  his  suspicions  with  a  plausible 
answer  to  his  challenge. 

Q.  What  question  should  be  asked  of  civilians 
coming  from  the  direction  of  the  enemy,  or  whose 
neighborhood  has  been  visited  by  hostile  troops? 

A.  Whenever  the  approach  of  people  is  signaled, 
the  patrol  remains  concealed  in  observation.     If  they 


Duties  of  the  Patrol.  155 

prove  to  be  civilians  coming  from  the  direction  of  the 
enemy,  tliej  should  be  (jnestioned  carefully,  as  they 
may  sometimes  give  valuable  information.  They 
should  be  asked  whether  they  have  seen  any  of  the 
enemy's  soldiers:  where  they  were,  what  they  w^ere  do- 
ing; whether  they  were  infantry,  cavalry,  or  artillery; 
whether  they  were  regular  troops  or  militia;  what  kind 
of  uniforms  they  wore;  whether  the  horses  and  men 
were  in  good  condition,  or  seemed  to  be  worn  out  and 
fatigued;  how  the  troops  of  the  enemy  behaved  them- 
selves; how  the  road  leading  to  the  enemy  is  situated, 
and  its  condition;  whether  the  enemy  has  scouting 
parties  out;  whether  he  seems  to  be  vigilant;  whether 
he  has  taken  any  guides  from  the  village,  etc. 

Q.  AVhat  should  be  avoided  when  questioning 
country  people? 

A.  Qut'stions  formulating  a  statement  to  which 
the  person  questioned  may  answer  "yes"  or  "no" 
should  be  avoided.  The  questions  should  be  such  aji 
to  draw  out  a  narrative  from  the  person  interrogated. 

Q.  What  precauti(ms  should  be  observed  in  ques- 
tioning civilians? 

A.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
questions  asked  may  be  repeated  to  the  enemy,  and  the 
questioner  must,  therefore,  be  careful  so  to  frame  them 
that  they  will  not  give  a  key  to  his  own  designs.  When 
several  persons  are  questioned,  they  should  be  exam- 
ined separately. 

Q.  What  should  be  done  in  regard  to  people  going 
in  the  direction  of  the  enemy? 

A.  They  should  be  halted,  and  never  allowed  to 
proceed,  unless  they  have  undoubtedly  genuine  passes 
from  proper  authority. 


156  Elements  of  Miliiary  Science. 

Q.     How  should  guides  be  selected  and  treated? 

A.  If  it  be  necessary  to  take  a  guide  from  among 
the  people  of  the  country,  he  should  be  kindly  treated, 
but  warned  that  he  will  pay  with  his  life  the  penalty 
of  treachery.  He  must  always  be  carefully  guarded, 
and  must  not  be  discharged  until  there  Is  no  longer 
danger  of  his  betraying  the  patrol.  No  one  but  the 
commander  should  communicate  with  the  guides. 
Drovers,  peddlers,  livery-stable  employees,  and  country 
doctors  will  generally  be  the  best  guides.  If  a  man 
can  be  found  who  has  served  as  a  guide  to  the  enemy, 
so  much  the  better. 

Q.  What  precautions  are  taken  by  the  patrol  with 
reference  to  concealment? 

A.  Whenever  possible,  the  men  composing  the 
patrol  should  keep  under  cover. 

Q.     How  are  cross-roads  reconnoitered? 

A.  When  the  patrol  comes  to  a  cross-road,  two  men 
vshould  be  sent  along  it  on  each  flank  until  they  come 
to  the  first  turn,  the  patrol  halting.  If  the  men  see 
nothing  suspicious,  they  return,  and  the  patrol  pushes 
on.  If  anything  suspicious  is  seen,  one  man  rushes 
back  quickly  to  the  patrol,  while  the  other  remains  in 
observation.  If  the  patrol  is  very  small,  two  men 
should  be  sent  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other, 
in  preference  to  sending  a  single  man  in  each  direction. 

Q.     How  is  a  height  reconnoitered? 

A.  In  reconnoitering  a  height,  if  the  patrol  is 
large  enough  to  admit  of  detaching  them,  one  or  two 
men  climb  the  slope  on  either  flank,  keeping  in  sight 
of  the  patrol  if  possible.  In  any  case,  one  man  moves 
cautiously  up  the  hill,  followed  by  the  others  in  single 
file  at  such  distance  that  each  can  keep  his  predecessor 
in  view. 


Duties  of  the  PalroL  157 

Q.     How  is  a  defile  reconnoitered? 

A.  On  approaching  a  defile,  if  time  permits,  the 
heights  on  either  side  should  be  reconnoitered  by 
flankers  before  the  patrol  enters.  If  the  heights  are 
inaccessible,  or  time  is  urgent,  the  patrol  pushes 
through,  in  single  file,  at  double  time,  the  distance 
being  the  same  as  in  ascending  a  hill.  The  same 
method  should  be  adopted  in  reconnoitering  a  railroad 
cut  or  sunken  road. 

Q.     How  is  a  bridge  or  ford  reconnoitered? 

A.  At  a  bridge  or  ford,  the  front  of  the  patrol  is 
contracted  so  as  to  bring  all  men  to  the  passage.  The 
patrol  then  crosses  rapidly,  and  takes  up  a  proper  for- 
mation). A  bridge  is  first  examined,  to  see  that  it  is 
safe  and  has  not  been  tamp'  red  with  b.^the  enemy. 

(2.     How  are  woods  reconnoitered? 

A.  The  patrol  enters  a  wood  in  skirmishing  order, 
the  intervals  being  as  great  as  may  be  consistent  with 
mutual  obserA'ation  and  support  on  the  part  of  the 
members  of  the  patrol.  On  arriving  at  the  farther 
edge  of  the  wood,  the  patrol  should  remain  concealed 
and  carefully  look  about  before  passing  out  to  the  open 
ground.  When  there  is  such  a  growth,  of  underbrush 
as  to  make  this  method  impracticable,  a  road  through 
the  wood  must  be  reconnoitered  as  in  the  case  of  a  de- 
file, though  not  usually  at  double  time.  If  in  this  case 
a  cross-road  is  found  in  the  wood,  the  patrol  must  be 
aj-^sembled  and  the  lateral  road  reconnoitered  before 
passing  beyond  it. 

Q.     How  is  an  inclosure  reconnoitered? 

A.  In  reconnoitering  an  inclosure  (such  as  a  gar- 
den, park,  or  cemetery),  the  leading  patrollers  first  ex- 
amine the  exterior,  to  make  sure  that  the  enemy  is  not 


158  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

concealed  behind  one  of  the  faces  of  the  inclosure. 
They  then  proceed  to  examine  the  interior.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  in  reconnoitering  and  entering 
an  inclosure,  as  an  imprudent  patrol  might  find  it  a 
veritable  trap. 

Q.     How  is  a  house  reconnoitered? 

A.  When  a  house  or  farm-building  is  approached 
by  a  patrol,  it  is  first  carefully  reconnoitered  from  a 
distance,  and  if  nothing  suspicious  is  seen,  it  is  then 
approached  by  two  men,  the  rest  of  the  party  remain- 
ing concealed  in  observation.  If  the  patrol  is  large 
enough  to  admit  of  it,  four  men  approach  the  house, 
so  as  to  examine  the  front  and  back  entrances  simul- 
taneously. Only  one  man  enters  the  door,  the  other 
remaining  out^de  to  give  the  alarm,  should  a  party  of 
the  enemy  be  concealed  in  the  house.  The  patrol 
should  not  remain  in  the  vicinit}^  of  the  house  any 
longer  than  necessary,  as  information  relative  to  its 
numbers  and  movements  might  be  given  to  the  enemy, 
if  a  hostile  party  should  subsequently  visit  the  place. 

Q.     How  are  villages  reconnoitered? 

A.  If  the  village  is  seen  to  be  in  possession  of  the 
enemy,  the  patrol  must  be  content  with  reconnoitering 
it  from  the  outside.  If  the  ])resence  of  the  enemy  is 
not  apparent,  the  patrol  should  enter  the  village, 
being  disposed  in  any  way  conforming  to  the  general 
rule.  A  formation  suitable  in  many  cases  would  be 
in  single  file  at  proper  distances  for  observation  and 
support,  each  man  being  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
street  from  his  predecessor.  The  patrol  should  push 
through  the  village  as  rapidly  as  possible;  and  when  it 
has  reached  the  opposite  side,  tw^o  of  the  party  might 
be  detached,  if  expedient,  to  reenter  the  village  to  seek 


Duties  of  the  Patrol  159 

further  information,  the  rest  of  the  patrol  remaining 
in  some  position  aftording  good  observation  and  secure 
retreat. 

If  the  patrol  is  strong  enough,  it  should  seize  the 
postoftice,  telegraph  office,  and  railroad  station,  and 
secure  all  iiH])ortant  papers  that  may  be  there.  If  the 
patrol  is  part  of  an  advance  guard,  it  should  seize  the 
mn^'or  and  postnuister  of  the  place,  and  turn  them  over 
to  the  commander  of  the  vanguard  with  the  papers 
seized. 

At  night,  a  village  must  be  even  more  cautiously 
approached  by  a  small  patrol  than  by  day.  The  patrol 
should  glide  through  back  alleys,  across  gardens,  etc., 
rather  than  move  along  the  main  street.  If  there  are 
no  signs  of  the  enemy,  they  should  make  imjuiry.  If 
no  light  is  seen,  and  it  seems  imprudent  to  rouse  any 
of  the  people,  the  patrol  must  watch  and  capture  one 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  get  from  him  such  information 
as  he  may  possess. 

The  best  time  for  a  patrol  to  approach  a  village  is 
at  early  dawn,  when  it  is  light  enough  to  see,  but  be- 
fore the  inhabitants  are  up. 

Q.     How  are  cities  and  large  towns  reconnoitered? 

A.  As  a  rule,  cities  and  large  towns  should  not  be 
entered  by  a  small  patrol,  but  should  be  merely 
watched  from  the  outside. 


160  Elements  of  Military  Science. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Duties  of  the  Patrol. — Indk^ations  of  the 
Enemy. 

Q.  How  is  the  reconnaissance  of  the  cncni}^  in 
position  effected? 

A.  The  patrol  endeavors  to  ascertain  the  direction 
and  extent  of  the  line  of  observation,  how  its  flanks 
are  supported,  the  positions  of  the  sentinels,  their  num- 
ber, the  number  of  pickets,  the  place  where  the  line 
may  be  penetrated  with  the  least  risk  of  discovers, 
the  strength  of  the  hostile  patrols,  and  the  routes  taken 
by  them.  It  is  also  of  great  importance  to  ascertain 
whether  good  roads  extend  laterallybehind  the  enemy's 
pickets,  as  such  roads  could  be  used  by  a  force  sent  out 
to  capture  them.  If  the  enemy's  line  of  sentinels  is 
penetrated,  the  patrol  may,  perhaps,  approach  near 
enough  to  the  picket  to  overhear  the  countersign  and 
parole;  but  it  must  be  certain  that  the  advantage  to  be 
gained  is  worth  the  risk,  as  the  patrol  will  be  in  great 
danger  of  capture.  If  a  point  can  be  found  on  the 
flank  of  the  enemy's  position  from  which  a  view  of  his 
dispositions  in  rear  of  the  line  of  sentinels  can  be  ob- 
tained, the  commander  of  the  patrol  endeavors  to  gain 
such  point,  and,  concealing  his  patrol  near  at  hand, 
makes  careful  observation.  The  best  time  for  such 
observation  is  at  daybreak,  and  the  selected  point 
should  be  gained  before  dawn,  so  as  to  enable  the 
patrol  to  observe  the  relieving  of  the  outpost.  The 
longer  the  patrol  remains,  the  more  it  will  see,  but  tho 
greater  will  be  its  danger  of  being  discovered.     The 


Duties  of  the  J\Urol.  161 

patrol  commander  should  have  sufficient  courage  to 
remain  long  enough  to  gain  valuable  information,  and 
sufficient  prudence  to  withdraw  in  time  to  escape 
capture. 

If  any  important  movements  are  observed,  such  as 
the  withdrawing  of  the  sentinels,  the  changing  of  their 
positions,  preparations  for  advance  or  retreat,  etc., 
(he  patrol  commander  sends  a  man  back  at  once  with 
a  report  of  what  has  been  st^^n. 

Q.  How  is  the  reconnaissance  of  the  enemy  on  the 
march  effected? 

A.  If  the  enemy  is  on  the  march,  the  palrol  should 
conceal  itself  close  to'  the  hostile  column,  but  far 
enough  away  to' escape  discovery  by  the  enemy's  flank- 
ers. Conspicuous  ]>laces  sliould  be  avoided,  even  if 
at  some  distance  from  the  column,  as  Ihey  would  j)rob- 
ably  be  carefully  searched.  The  best  place  is  a  ditch 
or  wallow,  which  will  conceal  the  patrol  and  not  be 
visible  even  at  a  short  distance.  The  patrol  carefully 
observes  the  progress  of  the  column,  noting  its  breadth 
of  front,  its  rate  of  march,  and  the  time  it  takes  to 
}»ass  a  given  point. 

Q.  How  can  the  strength  of  a  colunin  be  esti- 
mated? 

A.  A  given  point  is  jjassed  in  one  minute  by  about 
200  infantry  in  column  of  fours;  by  about  150  cavalry 
in  fours  at  a  walk,  or,  if  in  rear  of  the  infantry,  by  about 
100;  by  about  200  cavalry  in  fours  at  a  trot,  and  by 
about  4  guns  if  in  rear  of  infantry.  If  the  whole  col- 
umn can  be  seen,  and  its  length  can  be  ascertained  by 
the  known  distance  between  any  two  points  which  it 
])asses,  its  strength  can  at  once  be  estimated  by  allow- 
ing 1  yard  for  every  2  infantry  soldiers,  1  yard  for  each 
-u- 


162  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

cavalry  soldier,  and  20  yards  for  each  gun  or  caisson. 
An  allowance  of  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  must  be 
made  for  opening  out,  depending  upon  the  state  of  the 
roads  and  weather  and  the  discipline  of  the  troops 
composing  the  column. 

Q.  What  indications  are  furnished  by  boats  and 
bridges  in  the  vicinity  of  the  eneni}  ? 

A.  If  boats  in  great  number  are  seen  assembled 
on  the  bank  of  a  stream,  it  is  an  indication  of  prepara- 
tion to  cross.  If  they  are  found  burned,  it  is  an  indi- 
cation of  retreat.  If  important  bridges  are  found 
broken,  it  is  a  sign  of  a  long  retreat.  If  at  some  dis 
tance  above  the  jjoint  where  we  are  preparing  to  throw 
a  bridge,  large  boats  heavily  laden  with  stone  are 
found,  it  is  an  evidence  of  the  enemy's  intention  to 
destroy  the  bridge  and  oppose  the  crossing. 

Q.  What  indications  are  furnished  by  the  flames 
and  smoke  of  the  enemy's  camp-fires? 

A.  If  at  night  the  flames  of  the  enemy's  camp-fires 
disappear  and  reappear,  something  is  moving  between 
the  observer  and  the  fires.  If  smoke  as  well  as  flame 
is  visible,  the  fires  are  very  near.  If  the  fires  are  very 
numerous  and  lighted  successively,  and  if  soon  after 
being  lighted  they  go  out,  it  is  probable  that  the  enemy 
is  preparing  a  retreat  and  trying  to  deceive  us.  If  the 
fires  burn  very  brightly  and  clearly  at  a  late  hour,  the 
enemy  has  probably  gone,  and  has  left  a  detachment 
to  keep  the  fires  burning.  If,  at  an  unusual  time, 
much  smoke  is  seen  ascending  from  the  enemy's  camp, 
it  is  probable  that  he  is  engaged  in  cooking  prepara- 
tory to  moving  off". 

Q.  What  indications  may  be  noted  of  the  arrival 
and  departure  of  troops? 


Duties  of  the  Patrol  163 

A.  The  rumbling  of  vehicles,  cracking  of  whips, 
neighing  of  horses,  braying  of  mules,  and  barking  of 
dogs  often  indicate  the  arrival  or  departure  of  troops. 
If  the  noise  remains  in  the  same  place,  and  new  fires 
are  lighted,  it  is  probable  that  reinforcements  have 
arrived.  If  the  noise  grows  more  indistinct,  troops  are 
probably  withdrawing.  If,  added  to  this,  the  fires 
ap])ear  to  be  dying  out,  and  the  enemy  seems  to  redou- 
ble the  vigilance  of  his  outposts,  the  indications  of  re- 
treat are  very  strong. 

Q.  What  characteristic  noises  are  made  by  troops 
on  the  march,  and  at  what  distances  can  the  various 
arms  be  heard? 

A.  The  noise  made  by  a  strong  column  on  the 
march  is  distinct  and  continuous;  that  of  a  small  body, 
feeble  and  interrupted.  The  distance  at  which  the 
noise  of  marching  can  be  heard  depends  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  ground  marched  over,  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  other  sounds. 
On  a  calm  night,  a  company  of  infantry,  marching  at 
route  step  on  a  hard  road,  can  be  heard  at  a  distance 
of  500  or  000  yards;  a  troop  of  cavalry  at  a  walk,  600 
or  700  yards;  a  troop  of  cavalry  at  a  trot  or  gallop,  ar 
tillery,  and  heavy  wagons,  900  or  1000  yards. 

Q.  What  indications  are  afforded  by  the  dust 
raised  by  a  marching  column? 

A.  When  infantry  is  marching,  the  dust  is  low 
and  thick.  With  cavalry,  the  dnst  is  higher;  and  as 
this  arm  moves  rapidly,  the  upper  part  of  the  cloud  is 
thinner  and  disappears  more  quickly  than  in  the  case 
of  infantry.  The  clouds  of  dust  raised  by  artillery  and 
w^agons  are  unequal  in  height  and  disconnected. 
Hence,  by  noting  the  length  of  a  line  of  dust  and  the 


164  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

intervals  in  it,  the  strength  and  composition  of  the 
column  may  be  estimated.  The  effect  of  the  wind  in 
dissipating  the  dust  must,  however,  be  taken  into  con 
sideration. 

Q.     \\  hat  indications  are  furnished  by  the  reliec 
tion  from  the  weapons  of  marching  troops? 

A.  If  the  reliection  is  very  brilliant,  it  is  X)robable 
that  the  troops  are  marching  towards  the  observer; 
otherwise,  it  is  presumable  that  they  are  marching  in 
the  other  direction. 

Q.  At  what  distance  can  various  objects  be  seen, 
on  a  clear  day,  by  a  man  with  good  vision? 

A.  At  a  distance  of  9  to  12  miles,  church  spires 
and  towers. 

At  a  distance  of  5  to  7  miles,  windmills. 

At  a  distance  of  2  to  2|  miles,  chimneys  of  light 
color. 

At  a  distance  of  2000  j^ards,  trunks  of  large  trees. 
•  At  a  distance  of  1000  yards,  single  posts. 

At  500  yards  the  panes  of  glass  may  be  distin- 
guished in  a  window. 

Troops  are  visible  at  2000  yards,  at  which  distance 
a  mounted  man  looks  like  a  mere  speck;  at  1200  yards 
infantry  can  be  distinguished  from  cavalry;  at  1000 
jards  a  line  of  men  looks  like  a  broad  belt;  at  600  yards 
the  files  of  a  squad  can  be  counted,  and  at  400  j^^rds 
the  movements  of  the  arms  and  legs  can  be  plainly 
seen. 

Q.  What  are  some  of  the  conditions  which  cause 
an  object  to  look  farther  or  nearer  than  it  really  is? 

A.  The  larger,  brighter,  or  better  lighted  an  ob- 
ject is,  the  nearer  it  seems.  An  object  seems  nearei' 
when  it  has  a  dark  background  than  when  it  has  a  light 


Duties  of  the  Patrol  165 

one,  and  closer  to  the  observer  when  the  air  is  clear 
than  when  it  is  raininji^,  snowing,  foggy,  or  the  atmos- 
phere is  filled  with  smoke.  An  object  looks  farther 
off  when  the  observer  is  facing  the  sun  than  when  he 
has  his  back  to  it.  A  smooth  expanse  of  snow,  grain 
fields,  or  water  makes  distances  seem  shorter  than 
they  really  are. 

Q.  AVhat  information  may  be  gained  from  the 
trail  of  the  enemy? 

A.  If  the  ground  is  evenly  trodden,  the  column 
was  composed  of  infantry  alone.  If  there  are  many 
])rints  of  horseshoes, the  colum,n  also  contained  cavalry. 
If  the  wheel  tracks  are  deep  and  wide,  artillery  was  in 
the  column.  If  the  trail  is  fresh,  the  column  has 
recently  ])assed.  If  the  trail  is  narrow,  the  troops 
felt  secure,  as  they  were  marching  in  column  of  rente; 
if  broad,  they  expected  an  action,  as  they  were  march- 
ing in  colnmn  of  platoons  or  companies,  ready  to  de- 
ploy. If  the  fields  on  each  side  of  the  road  are  cut  up 
with  many  tracks,  the  cavalry  marched  on  the  flanks 
of  the  column,  and  the  enemy  was  pushing  on  with  his 
troops  well  in  hand  for  action.  A  retreating  army 
makes  a  broad  trail  across  fields,  especially  before  the 
rear  guard  is  formed  and  the  retreat  is  regularly 
organized. 

Q.  What  irdications  are  furnished  by  an  aban- 
doned camp  or  bivouac? 

A  They  are  found  mainly  in  the  remains  of  camp- 
fires.  These  will  show,  by  their  degree  of  freshness, 
whether  much  or  little  time  has  clasped  since  the  en- 
emy quitted  the  place,  and  the  quantity  of  cinders  will 
give  an  indication  of  the  length  of  time  he  occupied^  it. 
They  will  also  furnish  a  means  of  estimating  his  force 


1()6  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

approximately,  ten  men  being  allowed  to  each  fire. 
Other  valuable  indications  in  regard  to  the  length  of 
time  the  position  was  occupied  and  the  time  when  it' 
was  abandoned  may  be  found  in  the  evidences  of  care 
or  haste  in  the  construction  of  huts  or  shelters,  and  in 
the  freshness  of  straw,  grain,  dung,  or  the  entrails 
of  slaughtered  animals.  Abandoned  clothing,  equip- 
ments, or  harness  will  give  a  clue  to  the  arms  and  regi- 
ments composing  a  retreating  force.  Dead  horses 
lying  about,  broken  weapons,  discarded  knapsacks, 
abandoned  and  broken  down  wagons,  etc.,  are  indica- 
tions of  its  fatigue  and  demoralization.  Bloody  band 
ages  lying  about,  and  many  fresh  graves,  are  evidences 
that  the  enemy  is  heavily  burdened  with  wounded  or 
sick. 

<^.     What  inferences  may  be  drawn  from  the  man 
ner  and  bearing  of  the  inhabitants  in  a  hostile  country? 

A.  If  the  inhabitants  are  gloomy  and  anxious,  it 
is  an  indication  of  a  want  of  confidence  in  their  cause, 
or  that  their  troops  are  distant.  If  they  are  excited 
and  insolent,  it  is  an  indication  that  their  army  is 
strong  and  near,  and  that  they  anticipate  success.  If 
they  are  friendly  and  pleasant  in  their  demeanor,  it  is 
probable  that  the  war  is  not  popular,  and  that  the  Gov- 
ernment lacks  cordial  support. 


Reports  of  Patrols.  167 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Re;pokts. —  Special  Patkols. — Cavalry  Patkols. — 
The  Cavalry  Screen. 

il.  When  sliould  reports  be  sent  in,  and  what 
shonkl  be  reported? 

A.  Keports  should  be  sent  in  whenever  anything 
of  importance  is  seen,  or  anything  happens  which 
should  be  known  to  the  ofificer  who  sent  out  the  patrol. 

Q.  How  should  a  v(  rbal  report  be  sent,  and  when 
are  such  reports  better  than  written  ones? 

A.  If  a  verbal  report  is  sent  in,  it  should  be  in- 
trusted to  an  intelligent  man,  and  he  should  be  re- 
(juired  to  i-epeat  it  before  starting,  so  as  to  be  sure  that 
he  understands  it.  The  man  who  carries  the  report 
should,  if  possible,  himself  deliver  it  to  the  officer  for 
whom  it  is  intended.  If  the  country  is  dangerous  and 
carefully  watched  by  the  enemy,  the  same  report 
should  be  sent  in  by  several  men,  each  taking  a  differ- 
ent route.  In  this  case  a  verbal  report  is  better  than 
a  written  one,  as  the  enemy  can  not  get  possession  of 
it  by  capturing  the  bearer,  and  the  report  of  each  man 
will  be  a  check  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  others. 

Q.  What  are  the  indispensable  qualities  of  a  writ- 
ten report? 

A.  Scrupulous  accuracy  as  to  facts,  simplicity, 
clearness  of  diction,  legibility  of  handwriting,  and  cor- 
rect spelling  of  proper  names.  Surmises  should  never 
be  given  as  facts,  and  the  person  making  the  report 
should  carefully  separate  what  he  himself  knows  from 


J  68 


Elements  of  MilUary  Science. 


what  lias  been  told  him  by  others.     Brevity  is  desira- 
ble, but  not  at  the  price  of  obscurity. 


Sending 
Detachment 


Location 


Received, 


Day 

Mo. 

Hes.  Min 

a.  m.  or  p.  m. 


To 


Detachment  No.  Report  No. 

Received  Hr.  Min.  M  189. .. . 

(Name) 

(Rank) 


Note. — A  convenient  forni  of  report  is  j^iven  above. 

Q.  With  what  should  the  commander  of  the  ])atrol 
be  furnished? 

A.  If  practicable,  he  should  be  furnished  with  a 
pad  of  printed  report  blanks.  The  receipt  should  be 
signed,  torn  off,  and  given  to  the  bearer  of  the  report 


lieports  of  ralrols.  109 

as  his  voucher  for  its  delivery.  A  report,  either  writ- 
ten or  verbal,  should  invariably  be  made  whenever  the 
jmtrol  returns. 

il  To  what  should  the  strength  of  a  patrol  be 
l)roj)ortionate? 

A.  To  tlK'  object  1o  be  effected  by  it.  It  should 
neither  be  so  weak  as  to  be  obliged  to  retire  before 
small  i>arti('s  of  <lie  eiiemy.  noi-  so  strong  as  to  attract 
attention. 

i}.  W'hal  should  always  be  specilied,  and  with 
what  should  the  |>atrol  commander  be  jirovided? 

A.  The  object  for  which  the  patrol  is  sent  out 
should  be  distinctly  specified,  and  the  commander 
should  be  provided  with  a  good  map,  by  means  of 
which  he  may  S(^lect  his  route. 

Q.  AN'hat  is  the  general  nature  of  the  formation  of 
a  strong  infantry  ]>atrol? 

A.  The  lai'ger  Ihe  palrol,  the  less  secrel  are  its 
movements,  and  the  more  nearly  does  its  formation 
correspond  1o  that  of  a  column  on  the  march,  or  a  line 
deployed  for  action,  as  the  case  may  be.  As  a  rulo», 
at  least  half  the  strength  of  the  patrol  should  be  in  the 
main  body;  but  its  point,  flanking,  and  rear  groups 
(nich  constitute  a  small  patrol,  and  are  each  guided  by 
the  })rinci])les  already  laid  down  for  the  conduct  of  a 
small  ])atrol,  modified  by  their  dependence  on  the  main 
body.* 

♦Some  typical  formations  of  a  strong-  patrol  are  given  in  the  last  three 
figures  on  Plate  11.  Figures  7  and  8  explain  themselves.  In  Figure  9  the 
men  detached  to  reconnoiter  and  guard  the  bridge  would  ordinarily  be  sent 
out  from  the  point,  their  places  being  taken,  at  double  time,  by  men  from 
the  main  body  of  the  patrol.  The  patrol  moves  slowly,  or  halts  if  necessary, 
while  the  bridge  is  being  reconnoitered.  After  the  patrol  has  passed  on,  the 
detachment  follows  as  rear  group,  the  former  rear  group  closing  up  to  the 
main  body  of  the  patrol  at  double  time.  The  detachment  may  in  some  cases 
be  left  to  guard  the  bridge. 


170  Eleinents  of  MiUtary  Science. 

Q.  How  do  the  operations  of  an  expeditionary 
patrol  generally  difler  from  a  special  reconnaissance? 

A.  Expeditionary  patrols  are  generally  strong 
patrols,  although  in  some  cases  the  object  in  view  may 
be  better  attained  by  small  ones.  The  object  of  an  ex- 
peditionary patrol  is  always  a  special  one,  and  the 
operations  of  a  force  of  this  kind  generally  differ  from 
a  special  reconnaissance  only  in  the  size  of  the  force 
employed. 

Q.  What  is  the  most  favorable  moment  for  (jnes- 
tioning  prisoners,  and  why? 

A  When  they  havie  just  been  captured.  They 
are  then  agitated  and  have  not  sufficient  self-control 
to  deceive,  and  their  answers  at  the  place  of  capture 
may  to  a  certain  extent  be  verified.  Such  is  not  the 
case  after  tlie  lapse  of  some  time  and  in  another  place. 

Q.     I>y  whom  are  the  prisoners  (piestioned? 

A.  By  one  of  the  officers  of  the  detachment  which 
captures  them.  Their  replies  are  written  down  and 
transmitted  with  the  prisoners  to  the  Department 
of  Intelligence,  where  they  'are  questioned  more  at 
length. 

Q.  What  is  the  relative  value  of  different  grades 
of  prisoners? 

A.  It  is  more  desirable  to  capture  an  officer  than 
an  enlisted  man ;  an  officer  of  high  rank  rather  than  a 
subaltern;  a  staff  officer  rather  than  a  line  officer, 
In  brief,  the  object  should  be  to  capture  those  who  are 
likely  to  possess  the  most  extended  information. 

Q.  If  enlisted  men  are  captured,  what  should 
they  be  questioned  about? 

A.  They  should  be  questioned  in  regard  to  their 
regiments,  brigades,  and  divisions;  the  length  of  time 


Reports  of  Patrols.  171 

they  have  been  in  the  position;  whether  their  rations 
are  satisfactory;  wliether  certain  commanders  are  pop- 
ular and  have  the  confidence  of  their  men;  whether 
there  are  many  men  on  sick  report;  what  news  has 
hitely  been  received  in  camp,  and  what  the  rumors  are 
— in  brief,  all  questions  calculated  to  elicit  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  enemy's  position,  movements,  and 
morale.  If  tact  be  exercised  in  questioning,  much  in- 
formation may  be  gained;  for  the  prisoner  will  prob- 
ably consider  the  questions  as  prompted  merely  by 
natural  curiosity. 

Q.  When  the  object  is  the  destruction  of  roads, 
railroads,  or  telegraphs,  or  the  tapping  of  a  telegraph, 
how  should  the  expeditionary  patrol  act? 

A.  AYhen  the  object  is  the  destruction  of  roads, 
railroads,  or  telegraphs,  the  expeditionary  patrol 
should  generally  be  a  large  one;  but  in  some  cases  a 
small  patrol  may  answer  the  purpose  better,  as  it  can 
move  to  its  destination  more  secretly',  and  the  use  of 
high  ex})losives  gives  it  a  great  destructive  power.  In 
any  case,  the  patrol  should  endetivor  to  reach  its  ob 
jective  unseen,  and  part  should  be  on  the  alert  watch- 
ing the  enemy  while  the  rest  of  the  men  are  engaged 
in  the  Avork  of  destruction. 

A  patrol  may  be  sent  out  to  gain  information  by 
'^tapping-'  a  telegraph  line.  In  this  case,  a  telegraph 
operator,  using  a  small  pocket  instrument,  taps  the 
line  and  learns  the  messages  passing  over  it.  The  rest 
of  the  men,  carefully  concealed,  look  out  for  the  enemy. 
An  expeditionary  patrol  for  the  purpose  of  tapping  a 
telegraph  line  is  generally  a  cavalry  patrol,  sent  out 
from  the  cavalry  screen  or  from  a  raiding  column. 

Q,    When  may  harassing  patrols  be  used? 


172  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  When  an  army  halts  in  a  position  to  await  rein- 
forcements, or  because  of  the  irresolution  of  its  chief, 
the  opposing  commander  (even  if  his  army  be  inferior 
in  numbers)  may  often  raise  the  morale  of  his  own 
troops,  and  impair  the  courage  and  efficiency  of  those 
of  his  adversary;  by  causing  frequent  alarms,  destroy- 
ing the  enemy's  rest;  compelling  the  hostile  outposts 
repeatedly  to  rush  to  arms,  and  exciting  their  sentinels 
to  such  a  degree  that  they  fancy  a  foe  in  every  shadow, 
and  imagine  a  hostile  attack  in  every  rustling  leaf. 

Q.     Are  harassing  patrols  small  or  strong? 

A.  They  are  generally  strong;  for,  their  object  be- 
ing not  to  seek  information,  but  to  annoy  the  enemy, 
they  must  be  prepared  to  fight.  -  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, better  results  may  be  obtained  by  reducing  the 
size  and  increasing  the  number  of  the  patrols. 

Q.  What  is  the  method  of  operating  with  a  haras- 
sing ])atrol. 

A.  If  the  patrol  is  small,  the  enemy's  sentinels 
should  be  shot  down  or  captured  in  a  noisy  rush.  If 
the  patrol  is  large,  the  attack  should  be  made  upon  the 
enemy's  juckets;  the  object  being  the  creation  of  alarm 
and  the  infliction  of  loss  rather  than  the  capture  of 
])risoners.  If  many  small  harassing  patrols  are  em- 
ployed, strong  patrols  should  be  sent  out,  from  time  to 
time,  to  make  vigorous  attacks  on  the  pickets;  as  the 
enemy  would  otherwise  find  it  sufficient  merely  to  re- 
double the  vigilance  of  his  sentinels  and  patrol  to  the 
front.  The  method  of  attack  should  be  conlinually 
changed,  and  the  point  selected,  the  size  of  the  assail 
ing  force,  and  the  hour  of  attack  should  all  be  variable. 

O.  What  are  the  nature  and  duties  of  flank 
l^atrols? 


lie  ports  of  Patrols.  173 

A.  Tlioy  are  always  strong  patrols,  and  usually 
operate  on  roads  parallel  to  tlie  line  of  inarch  of  the 
main  body.  They  reeonnoiter  defiles,  farms,  wpods, 
etc.,  at  some  distance  from  the  flanks  of  the  main  col- 
umn. They  usually  consist  of  from  ten  to  twenty  men 
(but  may  contain  tln^  nuiximum  strength  of  a  patrol), 
and  are  generally  detached  for  a  specific  reconnais- 
sance, with  orders  to  rejoin  the  main  body  at  a  desig- 
nated rendezvous,  when  the  object  of  the  reconnais- 
sance has  been  gained.  The  patrol  should  avail  itself 
of  every  ])racticable  opportunity  of  communicating 
with  the  main  column. 

Q.  When  may  flank  patrols  be  called  covering 
l)atrols? 

A.  Flanking  patrols  of  the  nuiximum  strength  are 
often  detached  from  a  marching  column  to  reconnoiter 
and  guard  roads  crossing  the  line  of  march  during  the 
l)assage  of  the  nuiin  body.  They  are  sometimes  called 
covering  patrols.  The  forces  employed  on  this  duty  are, 
however,  generally  larger  than  patrols,  and  are  cover- 
ing detachments  charged  with  the  duties  of  a  contain- 
ing force. 

Q.  What  are  the  essential  differences  between  a 
cavalry  and  an  infantry  patrol? 

A.  Owing  to  the  greater  njobility  of  cavalry,  the 
distances  and  intervals  sejiarating  the  scouts  from 
each  other  and  from  the  main  body  of  the  patrol  are 
greater  than  in  infantry.  In  very  open  country  the 
cavalry  scouts  may  sometimes  be  as  far  as  1000  yards 
a])art.  Another  essential  difference  in  the  conduct  of 
infantry  and  cavalry  patrols,  dejiendi  g  als  >  upon  the 
superior  mobility  of  the  latter,  is  the  detaching  of 
scouts  from  strong  cnvnlry  ])atrols.     These  scouts  are 


174  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

not  merely  detached  after  the  maimer  of  the  flankers, 
or  even  the  flank  patrols,  of  an  advance  guard;  but 
work  quite  independently,  joining  the  main  body  of 
the  patrol  at  fixed  rendezvous,  or  maintaining  connec- 
tion with  it  by  occasionally  sending  in  reports  to  its 
.commander.  These  detached  scouts  usually  work  in 
pairs,  one  man  being  in  command,  and  may  be  sent  as 
far  as  five  or  six  miles  from  the  main  body  of  the  patrol. 
Each  scout  should  understand  what  he  is  to  look  for, 
•and  how  and  where  he  is  to  make  his  report. 

Q.  ^N'hat  cavalry  soldiers  should  be  selected  for 
patrol  duty,  and  what  is  required  in  their  inspection? 

A.  Intelligent  and  well-mounted  soldiers.  Before 
starting  out,  the  patrol  is  carefully  inspected  by  its 
commander,  who,  in  addition  to  seeing  that  his  men 
are  in  proper  condition  and  properly  equipped  and  sup- 
plied, assures  himself  that  his  horses  are  in  good  con- 
dition and  well  shod.  The  same  precautions  in  re- 
gard to  arms  and  accouterments  are  taken  as  in  the 
case  of  an  infantry  patrol. 

Q.  What  general  rule  may  be  prescribed  for  the 
formation  of  a  cavalry  patrol  ? 

A.  As  in  the  case  of  infantry,  no  rules  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  patrol  can  be  positively  prescribed,  ex- 
cept the  general  and  important  one,  that  the  patrol 
must  always  be  so  formed  as  to  facilitate  the  gaining 
of  information,  and  insure,  if  possible,  the  escape  of  at 
least  one  man  if  the  patrol  should  be  cut  off. 

Q.  What  are  the  distances  and  intervals  between 
the  difl'erent  parts  of  a  cavalry  patrol? 

A.  The  distances  and  intervals  between  different 
parts  of  a  patrol  depend  upon  circumstances.  They 
should  not  be  so  great  that  the  commander  could  not 


Beports  of  Patrols.  175 

easily  convey  his  coinmaiids  by  voice  or  signal,  and 
Avould  rarely  exceed  100  yards  except  in  open  country. 
At  night,  the  flankers  and  detached  scouts  should  al- 
ways be  drawn  in,  unless  their  communication  wfth 
the  main  body  of  the  patrol  is  perfectly  si  cured. 

Q.  How  does  a  cavalry  patrol  conduct  itself  at 
night? 

A.  At  night  it  must  rely  mainly  upon  its  sense  of 
hearing.  Strict  silence  should  be  maintained,  and 
smoking  should  be  prohibited.  Each  scout  should 
watch  his  horse  for  indications  of  danger,  not  only. at 
night,  but  at  all  times;  and  if  the  animal  pricks  up 
his  ears  attentiv(*ly  or  snorts  excitedly,  the  warning 
should  never  be  neglected,  but  the  cause  should  be' 
investigated. 

(2.  Why  must  a  cavalry  patrol  move  along  good 
roads,  and  what  precautions  should  it  take? 

A.  Though  exercising  the  utmost  vigilance,  and 
endeavoring  to  avoid  being  discovered,  a  cavalry  patrol 
must  move  along  good  roads.  To  do  otherwise  would 
be  to  follow  by-paths  and  traverse  diflficult  ground, 
where  the  horses  would  often  have  to  be  led.  The 
niobility  which  gives  a  cavalry  patrol  its  special  valui* 
would  thus  be  lost,  and  the  patrol  would  not  be  worth 
as  much  as  one  composed  of  infantry;  for  the  horses 
would  become  a  mere  burden.  The  patrol  should, 
however,  always  move  upon  soft  ground  or  sward  at 
the  side  of  the  road,  if  it  be  practicable  to  do  so,  and 
should  always  move  with  the  least  possible  noise. 

Q.  In  what  details  of  the  reconnaissance  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  ground  do  the  operations  of  a  cavalry 
patrol  differ  from  those  of  an  infantry  patrol? 

A.     The  general  manner  of  reconnoitering  different 


176  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

kinds  of  ground  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  infantry 
patrols;  but  the  following  details  should  be  noted: 
Scouts  should  peep  around  ever}-  corner  or  turn  in  the 
road  before  riding  on.  If  they  conu^  to  aji  object  too 
extensive  to  be  reconnoitered  without  assistance,  they 
must  signal  for  reinforcements,  or  one  man  must  ride 
back  and  report  to  the  patrol  commander,  while  the 
others  remain  in  observation.  If  obstacles  are  encoun- 
tei-ed  on  the  road,  such  as  barricades  or  felled  trees,  the 
patrol  must,  if  possible,  move  round  them  and  continue 
its  reconnaissance.  If  the  patrol  can  remove  the  obsta 
cle,  it  does  so;  otherwise,  or  if  a  bridge  is  br.iken,  word 
must  be  sent  back,  if  a  column  is  following. 

In  ascending  a  hill,  a  scout  should  not  ride  quite  to 
the  top;  but,  unless  time  is  urgent,  should  halt  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  crest  and  then  advance  with 
caution.  It  may  often  be  well  for  two  scouts  to  ap- 
proach the  crest  together,  one  of  them  dismounting 
and  reconnoitering  the  crest  on  foot  while  the  other 
holds  his  horse. 

Q.  If  necessary  to  halt  to  feed  or  water,  what 
places  should  be  avoided,  and  what  selected? 

A.  As  a  rule,  a  patrol  should  not  halt  at  inhabited 
places,  taverns,  etc.,  or  enter  an  inclosure.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  halt  to  feed  or  water  the  horses,  souk^ 
secluded  place  should  be  selected,  which  could  be 
guarded  by  sentinels  in  concealed  positions. 

Q.  Of  what  are  connecting  patrols  always  com- 
posed, and  how  do  they  operate? 

A.  They  are  always  composed  of  cavalry.  They 
ket^p  in  the  intervals  between  the  different  bodies,  and 
d(4ach  scouts  to  the  front  and  flanks.  The  scouts  to 
the  front  watch  the  enemv;  those  on  the  flanks  observe 


Reports  of  Patrols.  177 

all  movements  and  changes  of  position  of  the  body  of 
troops  nearest  them,  with  which  they  keep  in  constant 
communication. 

(2.  What  are  the  composition  and  duties  of  pursu- 
ing patrols? 

A.  They  are  always  composed  of  cavalry,  and  may 
be  either  small  or  strong.  They  keep  on  the  trail  of 
the  enemy,  do  not  lose  contact  with  him,  and  keep 
their  own  army  fully  informed  of  his  movements. 
They  should  luive  definite  orders  as  to  the  distance  to 
which  they  are  to  pursue,  and  tho  matters  which  it 
may  be  si)ecially  desiiable  to  report.  l*ursuing  patrols 
must  not  be  confounded  with  a  i)ursuing  force  follow- 
ing headlong  upon  the  heels  of  a  routed  army  to  com- 
]>lete  the  destruction  of  battle.  They  merely  follow, 
watch,  and  hang  on  an  army  that  is  retreating  without 
demoralization,  in  order  that  touch  with  it  may  not  be 
lost. 

Q.     What  is  an  officer's  patrol? 

A.  It  is  a  patrol  under  the  command  of  a  commis- 
sioned officer,  generally  varying  in  strength  from  two 
to  ten  men.  Sometimes  it  consists  of  one  or  two 
officers  alone. 

Q.  How  far  do<^s  an  officer's  patrol  ordinarily  go 
from  the  command  from  which  it  is  taken? 

A.  Generally  not  more  than  six  miles;  but  it  may 
be  called  upon  to  make  very  long  and  exhausting  rides, 
and  the  men  and  horses  should,  therefore,  be  very  care- 
fully chosen.  It  may  go  very  much  farther  than  the 
ordinary  scouting  patrols,  dei)ending  while  gone  entire- 
ly upon  its  own  resources. 

Q.  When  should  a  patrol  sent  out  on  a  special  mis- 
sion return? 


178  Elements  of  MiUlary  Science. 

A.  It  should  return  the  moment  its  object  is  ac- 
complished, without  undertaking  other  objects  on  its 
own  respoiTsibilitj.  Care  should  be  taken  that  neither 
too  many  missions  nor  too  great  an  extent  of  ground 
be  assigned  to  a  single  patrol. 

Q.  What  precaution  should  the  members  of  a 
patrol  take  in  regard  to  papers  on  their  persons? 

A.  They  should  not  have  on  their  persons  any 
papers  that  could  give  information  to  the  enemy. 
They  should  commit  their  orders  to  memory,  and  then 
destroy  ""the  printed  or  written  copy. 

Q.  For  what  duty  are  officers'  patrols  especially 
valuable,  and  in  entering  a  village  or  town  what  should 
they  do? 

A.  Owing  to  the  superior  celerity  and  efficiency  of 
officers'  patrols,  they  are  especially  valuable  in  seizing 
postoffices,  telegraph  stations,  etc.  In  entering  a  vil- 
lage or  town  in  the  enemy's  country,  the  greatest  safety 
is  found  in  the  sudden  appearance  and  ])rompt  disap- 
pearance of  the  party.  The  patrol  should  quickly  gain 
the  desired  information,  or  seize  the  jiersons  or  docu- 
ments constituting  its  object,  and  should,  disappear 
before  the  inhabitants  recover  from  their  astonishment 
sufficieYitly  to  appreciate  how  small,  or  how  isolated, 
the  party  is. 

Q.  '  How  is  an  army  screened  on  the  nmrch? 

A.  By  a  veil  of  cavalry,  which  covers  its  move 
ments,  reconnoiters  the  enemy,  and  prevents  him  from 
gaining  information  in  regard  to  the  strength,  disposi- 
tions, and  designs  of  the  force  in  rear. 

Q.  What  is  the  distance  of  this  screening  force  in 
advance  of  the  nuiin  army? 

A.     As  a  rule,  the  screening  force  is  at  least  one 


Reports  of  Patrols.  179 

jiiarcli  in  advance  of  the  main  army.  When  the  armies 
are  concentrating,  at  the  beginning  of  a  campaign,  the 
screening  force  may  sometimes  be  pushed  many  miles 
ahead;  but  wlien  the  armies  begin  their  advance,  the 
distance  is  usually  reduced  to  not  more  than  fifteen 
or  twenty  miles,  diminishing  on  contact  to  five  or 
six,  and  finally  disai>pearing  altogether  when  tactical 
operations  begin — the  veil  then  separating,  and  uncov- 
ering the  front  of  the  army. 

Q.  How  is  the  front  of  each  army  corps  on  the 
march  covered? 

A.  Asa  rule,  the  front  of  each  army  corps  on  the 
march  is  covered  by  a  brigade  of  cavalry,  the  front 
of  the  cavalry  brigade  on  screening  duty  averaging  ten 
or  twelve  miles.  When  the  brigade  constituting  the 
cavalry  screen  is  operating  in  an  open  country,  one 
regiment  constitutes  the  reserve,  and  is  preceded  by  a 
s(|uadron  of  each  of  the  other  regiments  at  a  distance 
of  about  two  and  a  half  miles.  These  squadrons,  con- 
stituting the  suj)ports,  are  separated  by  an  interval  of 
not  more  than  six  miles,  the  reserve  being  situated  cen- 
trally in  their  rear.  About  two  and  a  half  miles 
farther  to  the  front  is  the  second  squadron  of  each  ad- 
vanced regiment,  either  in  one  column,  or  in  two  col- 
umns of  two  troops  each.  These  are  termed  the  inter- 
mediate squadrons.  They  are  separated  by  about  the 
same  interval  as  the  squadrons  composing  the  sup- 
ports. About  two  and  a  half  miles  farther  to  the 
front,  the  remaining  s(]i]adron  of  each  regiment  is  dis- 
tributed along  the  front  in  contact  troo])s,  which  are 
preceded  at  suitable  distances  by  patrols,  detailed 
either  from  the  contact  troops,  the  intermediate 
squadrons,  or  the  supports.      When  necessary,  these 


180  Elemerits  of  Military  Science. 

patrols  detach  scouts  still  farther  to  the  front.  This 
formation  may  be  modified  in  many  ways;  the  great 
requirement  of  the  formation  of  the  screen  being  that 
it  should  be  able  to  get  information  of  the  enemy  and 
prevent  him  from  getting  information  in  turn.  On 
gaining  contact  with  the  enemy,  the  cavalry  forming 
the  screen  should  concentrate  to  fight;  for  the  best  way 
to  screen  an  army  is  by  defeating  and  driving  away  the 
opposing  cavalry. 

Q.  State  the  miles  regulating  the  conduct  of  th(> 
cavalry  screen. 

A.  The  following  rules  regulate  the  conduct  of  the 
cavalry  screen: 

1.  Explore  the  country  well  to  the  front  with 
small  patrols,  .which  must  not  lose  contact  with  tlie 
enemy. 

2.  Keep  the  supporting  bodies  w^ell  in  hand,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  concentrate  rapidly. 

3.  Alw-ays  maintain  a  reserve  when  near  the 
enemy. 

4.  Keep  up  constant  communication  between  all 
parts  of  the  screen  and  with  the  troops  in  rear, 

5.  Alw^ays  form  and  maneuver  the  screen  with  a 
view  to  beating  the  opposing  cavalry.  This  is  the 
paramount  consideration. 


Rear  Guards.  181 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Rear  Guards. 

Q.  How  is  the  withdrawal  of  a  defeated  army  cov- 
ered oil  the  Hehl  of  battle,  and  when  does  the  duty  of 
the  rear  guard  begin? 

A.  On  the  field  itself  the  withdrawal  is  covered  by 
the  artillery  and  cavalry,  especially  the  lattei*  when  the 
ground  favors  its  action ;  and  it  is  only  when  the  first 
halt  is  effected  that  the  rear  guard  can  be  orgajiized 
and  a  regular  retreat  begun. 

Q.  Why  is  it  that  a  retreating  army  can  be  pro- 
tected by  a  fraction  of  itself? 

Q.  Because  the  enemy  must  change  from  order  of 
battle  to  order  of  inarch  to  pursue,  and  he  can  at  first 
bring  only  the  heads  of  his  columns  against  the  rear 
of  the  retreating  force. 

Q.  Why  must  a  rear  guard  be  organized  as  soon  as 
possible? 

A.  The  rear  guard  must  be  organized  as  soon  as 
])ossible,  even  at  the  expense  of  a  delay  comparatively 
near  the  enemy;  for  to  trust  to  speed  entirely  in  escay)- 
ing  would  be  to  make  such  long  and  continued  forced 
marches  as  to  ruin  the  efficiency  of  the  army  and  dis-' 
integrate  it  by  straggling. 

Q.  By  w^hat  must  the  rear  guard  profit,  and  what 
two  courses  of  action  are  then  open  to  the  enemy's 
clioice? 

A.  The  rear  guard  must  profit  to  the  utmost  by 
the  defensive  features  of  the  ground,  and  at  every 
opportunity  take  up  a  defensive  position.    The  enemy 


182  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

will  then  liave  but  two  courses  of  action  open  to  his 
choice:  either  to  atack  with  the  heads  of  his  columns, 
or  to  deploy  for  action.  In  the  former,  his  advanced 
troops  should  be  easily  repulsed;  in  the  latter,  he  will 
be  compelled  to  lose  time  in  dex)loying,  while  the  rear 
guard  (which  should  wait  until  the  enemy's  disi)osi 
tions  for  attack  are  about  completed)  should  quickly 
ploy  and  disappear  from  his  front,  only  to  repeat  the 
operation  at  the  next  favorable  ground.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  enemy,  unable  to  advance  quickly  in  deplo;^'ed 
lines,  again  loses  time  in  changing  to  a  marching  forma- 
tion, and  the  main  body  of  the  retreating  army  steadily 
continues  on  its  way  without  halting. 

Q.  What  is  the  strength  of  the  rear  guard  under 
various  conditions,  and  what  are  the  objections  to  hav 
ing  it  too  large  or  too  small? 

A.  The  strength  of  the  rear  guard  depends  upon 
the  nature  of  the  country,  and  the  strength  and  char- 
acter of  the  pursuing  force.  In  a  broken  country  full 
of  good  defensive  positions,  it  would  be  less  than  in  an 
open  country;  and  it  would  be  greater  when  the  pur- 
suit was  vigorously  pushed  in  force  than  when  it  was 
feebly  conducted  by  small  parties.  As  a  rule,  it  cor- 
responds to  the  strength  of  an  advance  guard  on  a  for- 
ward march;  and  would,  consequently,  vary  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-third  of  the  entire  force — generally  con- 
sisting of  about  one-sixth.  Care  and  good  judgment 
are  necessary  in  determining  the  strength  of  the  rear 
guard.  If  it  were  too  large,  too  many  troops  would  be 
kept  upon  a  peculiarly  trying  duty,  and  the  object  of 
the  commander  to  withdraw  quickly  as  many  men  as 
possible  to  a  place  of  safety  would  be  thwarted.  If  it 
were  too  small,  it  would  be  continually  driven  in  upon 


Uear  Guards.  183 

the  main  body,  to  which  it  would  communicate  aUirni 
and  confusion;  and  the  hitter  might  even  be  compeHed 
to  halt  ai:d  Hj^hl  for  the  protection  of  the  rear  guard. 

Q.  What  troops  should  be  selected  for  the  rear 
guard,  and  what  should  be  done  to  raise  their  morale? 

A.  The  best  troops  should  be  selected;  generally 
those  which  have  suifcrcd  least  in  the  battle,  or  which 
have  gained  therein  some  local  success;  and  their  mor 
ale  should  be  still  further  raised,  if  practicable,  by  occa- 
sional an!]»uscades  or  otTcnsive  returns  against  the  en 
cniy,  whenever  an  oi)portunity  (  f  taking  him  at  a  dis- 
advantage occuis. 

(2.  Wlu^n,  and  how,  should  oflensive  returns  be 
made? 

A.  They  are  generally  made  when  the  rear  guard 
is  closely  ]>ressed  by  the  enemy  at  a  bridge,  defile,  or 
ford.  They  should  not  be  pushed  far;  for  their  result, 
at  best,  can  only  be  a  moral  cmp,  and  the  distance  be- 
tween th(^  main  body  and  the  rear  guard  must  not  be 
dangei'ously  inci*eas(Ml. 

Q.     What  (]ualities  should  be  possessed  by  the  com 
mander  of  the  rear  guard,  and  (brieliy)  how  should  he 
conduct  its  6perati(jns? 

A.  He  should  be  as  prudent  as  a  man  can  be  with- 
out lieing  timid,  and  as  brave  as  a  man  can  be  without 
being  rash.  He  should  constantly  present  a  bold  front 
to  the  enemy,  and  should  ever  be  ready  to  fight,  even 
to  the  extent  of  sacrificing  himself  and  his  entire  com- 
mand if  necessary;  but  he  should  reniember  that  the 
gieat  duty  of  the  rear  guard  is  to  gain  time,  and  he 
should  know  when  to  withdraw.  He  should  be  able  to 
distinguish  tlu^  enemy's  pre])arations  for  a  serious  at- 
tack from  insignificant  demonstrations,  and  he  should 


184  Elements  of  Militanj  Science. 

never  allow  the  enemy  to  force  him  into  a  fight  contrary 
to  his  own  interests  and  intentions.  He  should  never 
expect  assistance,  and  should  feel  disgraced  if  the  main 
body  should  be  obliged  to  suspend  its  retreat  to  come 
to  his  aid. 

Q.  In  general  terms,  what  is  the  distance  of  the 
main  body  from  the  rear  guard,  and  what  are  the  ob- 
jections to  having  it  too  great  or  too  small? 

A.  In  general  terms,  it  may  be  said  to  be  usually 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  advance  guard  from  the 
main  body  on  advance.  If  the  distance  were  too  great, 
the  rear  guard  would  be  in  danger  of  being  cut  off;  if 
the  distance  were  too  small,  the  main  body  would  be 
subject  to  constant  alarms,  and  each  reverse  of  the  rear 
guard  would  quickly  affect  the  main  body,  whose  re 
treat  would  be  constantly  harassed  by  the  enemy. 

Q.     What  is  the  formation  of  the  rear  guard? 

A .  It  is  that  of  an  advance  guard  reversed.  Near- 
est the  main  body  is  the  reserve,  after  which  follow  the 
sup])ort  and  the  rear  party,  the  extreme  rear  being 
composed  of  a  point.  The  distances  between  the 
various  bodies  composing  the  rear  guard  are  the  same 
as  tho«e  between  the  corresponding  bodies  of  the  ad- 
vance guard.  Flankers  are  thrown  out  as  in  the  case 
of  an  advance  guard,  but  they  are  more  numerous,  and 
the  line  joining  them  is  a  more  pronounced  curve,  for 
the  reason  that  flank  attacks  are  more  to  be  feared  than 
in  the  case  of  an  advance  guard,  and  the  flanks  must, 
therefore,  be  more  carefully  covered. 

Q.  Of  what  arms  should  the  rear  guard  be  com- 
posed? 

A.  The  composition  of  a  rear  guard  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  an  advance  guard.     It  is  generally 


Bear  Guards.  185 

composed  of  all  three  arms;  but  if  there  are  enough 
cavalry  and  horse  artillery  to  admit  of  the  rear  guard 
being  composed  exclusively  of  those  arms,  it  would  be 
best,  except  in  a  very  close  and  rugged  country,  to  leave 
the  infantry  with  the  main  body. 

Q.  How  many  guns  should  there  be  with  the  rear 
guard,  and  what  may  their  effective  use  do? 

A.  There  should  be  as  many  guns  with  the  rear 
guard  as  can  be  effectively  used  and  freely  maneuvered. 
The  effective  use  of  artillery  may  obviate  the  necessity 
of  deploying  the  other  arms  of  the  rear  guard,  the  de- 
ployment of  the  enemy 'at  a  distance  being  compelled 
by  the  fire  of  the  guns. 

Q.  IIow  should  the  artillery  of  the  rear  guard  be 
used,  and  what  should  be  done  if  it  becomes  necessary 
to  abandon  the  guns? 

A.  The  fire  of  the  artillery  at  short  range  shoukl 
be  as  ra]>id  as  is  compatible  with  its  cool  and  intelli 
gent  action.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  abandon  the 
guns,  the  equipments  and  breech-blocks  should  be  car- 
ried away,  and,  if  there  seems  to  be  no  hope  of  recover- 
ing the  lost  pieces,  the  guns  should  be  burst  and  the 
caissons  blown  up.  The  danger  of  losing  a  few  guns 
must  never  be  made  an  excuse  for  a  premature  with- 
drawal. 

il.  How  should  cavalry  be  used  with  the  rear 
guard  ? 

A.  The  cavalry  of  the  rear  guard  can  charge  bodies 
of  the  enemy  that  have  been  thrown  into  confusion  by 
the  ardor  of  pursuit,  or  by  the  fire  of  the  artillery;  but 
its  chief  reliance  should  be  in  dismounted  fire-action. 

Q.  How  are  the  several  arms  arranged  in  a  rear 
guard  composed  of  all  arms? 


186  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

A.  The  infantry  should  be  with  the  reserve,  and 
tlie  cavalry  with  the  support  and  rear  party.  If  the 
cavalry  is  not  in  sufficient  strength  for  the  entire  sup 
port,  the  deficiency  must,  of  course,  be  made  up  from 
the  infantry.  The  artillery  should  be  with  the  reserve; 
but  horse  artillery  may  sometimes  accompany  the  sup 
port.  The  engineers  should  be  at  the  rear  of  the  re- 
serve or  at  the  head  of  the  support.  Machine-guns  may 
be  used  with  effect  by  the  rear  guard.  They  should 
generally  be  with  the  support. 

Q.     How  nmy  a  rear  guard  be  described? 

A.  Asa  reversed  advance  guard  with  more  flank- 
ers.    (See  Plates  12  and  13.) 

Q.  How  is  the  withdrawal  of  the  rear  guard  from 
action  executed? 

A.  The  manner  of  withdrawing  a  rear  guard  from 
action  will  depend  entirely  upon  circumstances.  Asa 
rule,  only  a  portion  should  withdraw  at  a  time,  taking 
u}),  if  necessary,  a  new  position,  to  cover  the  with- 
drawal of  the  rest.  The  guns  especially  must  not  all 
withdraw  at  once,  As  the  total  cessation  of  artillery  fire 
would  betray  the  movement.  Whether  the  with- 
drawal should  be  by  alternate  battalions,  or  whether  it 
should  begin  at  the  center  or  at  a  flank,  would  depend 
upon  the  direction  and  progress  of  the  attack  and  the 
topography  of  the  field.  Generally,  the  infantry  and 
a  portion  of  the  guns  withdraw  first;  and  when  they 
are  again  in  position  or  en  route.,  they  are  followed  by 
the  remaining  guns  and  the  cavalry. 

Q.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  to  i^^sure  the 
right  road  being  followed  by  the  rear  guard? 

A.  T'ninterrupted  communication  must  be  main- 
tained between  the  several  parts  of  the  rear  guard  and 


Rear  Gnarch.  187 

COMPANY  OF  INFANTRY  AS  REAR  GUARD 


MAIN  BODY 


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Plate  12. 


188  Elements  of  Military  Science. 


TROOP  OF  CAVALRY  AS  REAR  GUARD 

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Plate  13. 


Bear  Guards.  J 89 

the  main  body.     The  road  should  be  carefully  marked, 
so  that  the  rear  j^iiard  may  not  lose  its  way. 

Q.  Why  must  the  tianks  of  a  rear  guard  be  guarded 
with  especial  care,  and  what  provision  is  made  for  pro- 
tecting them  from  suri)rise? 

A.  Patrolling  must  be  carried  on  with  vigilance 
and  energy,  especially  on  the  tianks.  The  enemy,  tind 
ing  a  tirm  front  opposed  to  all  his  direct  attacks,  will 
undoubtedly  attempt  to  cut  in  on  the  flanks,  where,  in 
fact,  always  lie  his  most  promising  hopes  of  success; 
for  if  he  can  cause  the  rear  guard  to  form  front  to  a 
flank,  any  assault  by  which  it  can  be  ]mshed  otf  the 
road  will  uncover  the  rear  of  the  main  body,  and  will 
be  only  less  disastrous  to  the  retreating  army  than  the 
destruction  of  the  rear  guard  itself.  Prompt  notifica- 
tion  of  attempts  against  the  flanks  should  be  given  by 
the  patrols  (who  are  often  warned  of  them  by  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  enemy's  forces  following  in  rear),  and  the 
rear  guard  should  then  endeavor  with  celerity  to  slip 
past  the  menaced  point;  failing  in  this,  it  should  form  a 
strong  front  towards  the  attacking  force. 

Q.  If  the  two  armies  are  of  approximately  equal 
strength,  why  should  the  rear  guard  have,  at  first,  an 
advantage  over  the  o])posing  advance  guard;  and  why 
does  not  this  advantage  continue? 

A.  If  tw^o  armies  are  of  approximately  equal 
strength,  the  rear  guard  will  be  about  as  stong  as  the 
advance  guard  of  the  force  pursuing  it,  and  the  advan- 
tage of  a  good  defensive  position  should  give  it  a  supe- 
riority over  the  latter.  Rut  this  superiority  will  be 
only  temporary  at  best;  for  the  advance  guard  is  re- 
ceiving constant  accessions  of  vstrength  from  the  rear, 
while  the  distance  between  the  rear  guard  and  the  main 


190  Elements  of  MiUtarij  Science. 

body  of  the  retreating  force  is  constantly  increasing. 

Q.  In  regard  to  what  is  the  pursuing  army  always 
in  doubt? 

A.  The  pursuing  army  will  always  be  in  more  or 
less  doubt  as  to  the  strength  of  the  force  which  it  finds 
barring  its  way,  and  it  nmst  act  with  prudence,  or  run 
the  risk  of  a  serious  and  costly  repulse.  The  morale  of 
the  retreating  force  is  also  a  matter  of  uncertainty  to 
the  pursuers,  and  this  consideration  also  forbids  rash 
action. 

Q.  What  advantage  has  the  rear  guard  over  the 
pursuing  force  in  regard  to  the  ground? 

A.  It  is  not  obliged  to  reconnoiter  the  ground  over 
which  it  has  to  march.  All  necessary  information  as 
to  the  roads  is  furnished  from  the  front,  and  a  well- 
qualified  staff-ofiicer  with  the  nmin  body  should  select 
defensive  positions  for  the  rear  guard,  and  furnish  its 
commander  with  a  description  (and,  if  possible,  a  topo 
graphical  sketch)  of  the  same.  The  positions  would 
be  ridges,  sunken  roads,  villages,  woods,  bridges,  or 
defiles. 

Q.  When  should  the  rear  guard  make  use  of  defen- 
sive positions? 

A.  When  it  is  essential  that  the  army  should  put 
distance  between  itself  and  the  enemy,  the  rear  guard 
must  make  use  of  every  good  defensive  position  to  de- 
lay the  pursuers;  but  no  halt  should  be  made  for  fight- 
ing when  the  necessity  of  checking  the  enemy  and  gain- 
ing time  is  not  imperative. 

Q.  How  long  should  the  rear  guard  occupy  a  de- 
fensive position? 

A.  The  rear  guard  must  not  be  tempted  by  the 
great  natural  strength  of  a  position  to  occupy  it  at  the 


Ihar  Guards.  19  L 

expense  of  beiiijj^  separated  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
the  main  body,  nor  to  hold  it  so  long  as  to  become  com- 
promised in  a  regular  engagement.  The  amount  of  re- 
sistance to  be  made  by  the  rear  guard  will  depend  upon 
the  judgnuMit  of  its  eomniander,  or  on  the  orders  of  the 
commander-in-chief. 

il.  To  what  extent  should  the  commander-in-chief 
sup(M*vise  the  operations  of  the  rear  guard? 

A.  At  very  important  positions,  he  should  join  the 
rear  guard,  if  necessary,  superintending  its  formation 
for  resistance,  or  even  conducting  its  action.  It  is 
best,  however,  never  to  interf(  re  with  the  commander 
of  the  i-ear  guard,  if  he  understands  his  busim^ss  and 
]>eifoi-ms  his  ])art  ]»r()j>erly.  The  nature  of  his  duty 
r(M]uir(«s  that  he  should  have  even  greater  independence 
(faction  than  the  commander  of  an  advance  guard. 

Q.  Why  do  defiU^s  oiler  good  opj)ortunities  to  an 
energetic  jiursuer  and  to  an  able  rear  guard  com- 
nmnder? 

A.  To  the  former  they  afford  a  chance  of  cutting 
olf  the  rear  guard  by  interposing  a  force  at  the  entrance 
of  the  detile.  To  the  latter  they  afford  a  double  oppor- 
tunity of  administering  a  check  to  the  enemy,  wlio  is 
compelled  to  narrow  his  front. 

Q.     How  may  a  delile  be  defended  at  the  entrance? 

A.  If  ])racticable,  the  jxisition  at  the  entrance  of 
the  detile  should  be  convex  towards  the  enemy,  so  as 
to  admit  of  ready  withdrawal  by  the  flanks.  In  defend- 
ing a  defile,  the  main  body  leaves  a  detachment  to  hold 
the  heights  on  each  side  until  relieved  by  the  infantry 
of  the  rear  guard.  The  artillery  is  generally  stationed 
at  the  entrance  of  the  defile,  and  the  cavalry  in  the  best 
position    for   dismounted   fire-action — always   at   that 


19'-^  Eleiiuiiis  of  Military  Science. 

part  of  the  line  which  is  to  withdraw  last.  As  soon  as 
the  eneni}^  has  not  only  deployed  for  attack,  but  is  well 
committed  to  the  assault,  the  artillery  fires  its  parting 
round  of  shrapnel,  and  withdraws  rapidly  through  the 
defile,  followed  by  the  infantry.  The  cavalry  covers 
the  withdrawal  of  the  other  arms,  mounting  at  the  last 
moment,  and  retreating  rapidly  through  the  defile,  its 
retreat  being  protected,  if  practicable,  by  infantry  skir- 
mishers lining  the  crest  on  either  side  of  the  interior 
of  the  defile. 

Q.     How  may  a  defile  be  defended  at  the  outlet? 

A.  The  outlet  of  the  defile  always  affords  a  better 
position  for  opposing  the  enemy  than  the  entrance; 
for  in  making  a  stand  with  a  defile  at  its  back,  the  rear 
guard  runs  the  risk,  in  case  its  flank  is  turned,  of  being 
cut  off  altogether.  In  making  a  stand  at  the  farther 
side,  the  artillery  is  posted  so  as  to  rake  the  defile ;  and 
the  infantry,  so  as  to  bring  a  converging  fire  on  its  out- 
let, detachments  of  infantry  also  holding  the  crest; 
while  the  cavalry  is  stationed  so  as  to  be  able  to  charge 
the  enemy  in  flank  as  he  emerges  from  the  defile. 
Enough  of  the  enemy  should  be  allowed  to  pass  to  ena- 
ble the  assault  upon  him  to  be  more  than  a  mere  stroke 
at  the  head  of  his  column;  but  the  mistake  of  allowing 
too  many  to  pass  would  be  a  fatal  blunder.  Here  the 
judgment  of  the  rear  guard  commander  must  come  into 
play,  and  no  rule  or  suggestion  can  aid  him.  The  en- 
emy having  been  severely  handled  and  thrown  back 
into  the  defile,  the  rear  guard  withdraws  without  delay. 

Q.  Besides  fighting,  what  measures  should  be 
taken  by  the  rear  guard  ? 

A.  All  measures  to  impede  his  progress  by  block- 
ing his  path,  destroying  bridges,  etc. 


Bear  Guards.  193 

Q.     How  may  villages  be  utilized  by  a  rear  guard? 

A.  They  may  be  fortified  in  some  eases,  but  gen- 
erally it  will  be  more  expedient  to  burn  them,  and  thus 
place  a  barricade  of  fire,  so  to  speak,  between  the  rear 
guard  and  the  enemy;  but  this  measure  will,  manifest- 
ly, be  of  value  only  when  the  enemy  is  following  close 
upon  the  heels  of  the  rear  guard. 

Q.  What  should  always  be  resorted  to  by  the  rear 
guard? 

A.  Any  means  of  producing  suffering  and  incon- 
venience to  the  pursuers,  such  as  to  cause  them  to  de- 
lay, should  be  resorted  1o  by  the  rear  guard,  stopping 
only  at  such  measures  as  are  condemned  by  the  laws 
of  w^ar. 

Q.  Are  these  negative  measures  sufficient  in  them- 
selves? 

A.  Ko.  They  are  merely  helps,  and  the  safety  of 
the  retreating  force  must  depend  upon  the  resolute 
ad  ion  of  the  rear  guard  itself. 

(].  What  should  be  done  with  stragglers,  and  with 
the  sick  and  wounded,  with  the  rear  guard? 

A .  The  rear  guard  should  collect  all  stragglers  and, 
compel  them  to  move  on,  and  it  should  not  allow  the 
sick  or  wounded  to  be  left  behind,  unless  they  prove  a 
dangerous  encumbrance. 

Q.    At  each  halt,  what  is  done  by  the  rear  guard? 

A.  It  chooses  a  good  defensive  position,  and  estab- 
lishes its  outposts  towards  the  enemy. 

Q.  When  an  army  is  retreating  by  several  paral- 
lel roads,  how^  are  the  rear  guards  formed  and  com- 
manded? 

A .  Each  column  wdll  then  have  its  own  rear  guard, 
each  rear  guard  having  its  own  chief,  and  all  being 

-13- 


194  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

united,  when  practicable,  under  the  command  of  one 
common  superior.  Connection  should  be  maintained 
between  the  several  columns,  and  between  the  different 
rear  guards,  by  connecting  groups  or  patrols. 

Q.     What  are  the  duties  of  the  rear  guard  on  a  for- 
ward march? 

A.  The  rear  guard  should  never  begin  its  march 
until  all  the  baggage  has  moved  off.  The  provost- 
marshal  and  provost  guard  generally  march  with  the 
rear  guard,  which  takes  charge  of  all  prisoners  arrested 
by  them.  If  marching  in  a  hostile  country,  the  rear 
guard  is  charged  with  the  protection  of  the  baggage 
from  the  forays  of  guerillas,  and  if  the  country  is  suited 
to  partisan  warfare,  and  the  enemy's  raiding  parties 
are  enterprising,  its  duty  greatly  increases  in  import- 
ance. It  should  carefully  watch  the  flanks  of  the  bag 
gage  train  with  patrols,  of  a  number  and  size  suited  to 
the  danger  to  be  apprehended,  and  should  be  ready  to 
repel  attacks  on  the  flanks  as  well  as  on  the  rear  of  the 
train. 


PART  III. 

Field  Fortification. — Marches. 
— Supply. 


Field  Fortification,  197 

CHAPTER  I. 
Field  Fortification. 

Q.     What  is  the  object  of  all  fortification? 

A.  So  to  strengthen  a  position  that  the  forces 
occupying  it  may  successfully  resist  or  subdue  their 
adversaries. 

Q.     Into  what  two  classes  is  fortification  divided? 

A.  Into  Permanent,  and  Temporary  or  Field  Forti- 
fication. 

Q.     What  are  the  subdivisions  of  field  fortification? 

A.  First,  Hasty  Intrenchments,  by  which  an  army 
in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  seeks  to  protect  itself  from 
the  direct  effect  of  his  fire.  Second,  Field  Works,  for 
the  temporary  protection  of  important  points,  such  as 
cities,  arsenals,  bridges,  fords,  and  of  military  positions 
in  general.  Third,  Siege  Works,  for  the  reduction  of 
fortified  positions.  These  will  not  be  considered  in 
this  work. 

Q.  Why  are  hasty  intrenchments  indispensable  to- 
day, and  of  what  do  they  consist? 

A.  The  intensity  of  fire  of  modern  small  arms 
makes  some  sort  of  protection  absolutely  necessary, 
and  this  protection  can  in  the  general  ease  be  furnished 
only  by  hasty  intrenchments.  These  consist  ordinarily 
of  parapets  of  earth  hastily  thrown  up,  whence  their 
name.  The  parapet  with  its  trench  constitutes  the 
shelter  trench,  so  called.  All  hasty  intrenchments  are 
of  three  types,  according  as  the  line  protected  is  lying 
down,  kneeling,  or  standing.  The  last  two  require,  of 
course,  more  time  in  construction  that  the  first,  and  are 


198  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

resorted  to  only  when  the  position  is  to  be  occupied  for 
a  comparatively  long  time.     (See  Plate  14.) 

The  principal  function  of  the  shelter  trench,  as  al- 
ready stated,  is  to  shelter  infantry,  and  to  protect  it 
against  the  fire  of  the  enemy's  infantry.  80  important 
is  it  now  to  have  the  protection  of  the  shelter  trench 
that  all  infantry  troops  carry  intrenching  tools  as  an 
integral  part  of  their  equipment. 

Q.     On  what  does  the  location  of  trenches  depend? 

A.  Trimaril^',  on  tactical  considerations;  and  sec- 
ondarily, on  the  nature  of  the  ground. 

Q.  What  conditions  should  always  be  satisfied  by 
shelter  trenches? 

A.  While  affording  the  most  complete  cover  pos- 
sible under  the  circumstances,  they  should  have  a  free 
field  of  fire  to  the  front,  and  should  not  interfere  with 
or  hinder  the  quick  resumption  of  the  offensive. 

Q.     How  is  cover  for  guns  and  caissons  obtained? 

A.  Either  by  sinking  the  gun  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  building  a  parapet  with  the  excavated 
earth,  or  by  leaving  the  gun  on  the  natural  surface  of 
the  ground  and  building  an  epaulment  in  front  and  on 
the  flanks.  The  first  construction  is  called  a  gun-pit; 
the  second,  a  gun  epaulment. 

Q.     When  are  field  works  employed? 

A.  When  a  position  is  to  be  held  for  a  considerable 
period,  and  time  is  available. 

Q.  What  special  conditions  must  field  works 
satisfy? 

A.  1.  They  must  afford  protection  against  both 
rifle  and  artillery  fire. 

2.  They  must  be  of  suitable  size  for  the  garrison 
that  is  to  occupy  them. 


Field  Fbrlificaiion. 


199 


X 


A 

^ 


41 

Plate   14. 


200  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

3.  They  should  have  suitably  constructed  case- 
mates to  shelter  the  garrison  by  night. 

Q.  Define  parapet,  trace,  and  profile,  and  give  the 
names  of  the  various  parts  of  the  profile. 

A.  A  parapet  is  a  bank  of  earth  thrown  up  to 
cover  the  defenders  while  firing;  the  trace  of  a  work  is 
its  outline  in  plan,  though  the  term  is  frequently  ap- 
plied to  the  horizontal  projection  of  its  interior  crest. 
(See  Plate  15,  Figure  1.)  The  profile  is  a  cross-seition  of 
the  work  made  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  interior 
crest.     (See  Plate  15,  Figure  2.) 

In  the  profile,  the  various  parts  have  received  the 
following  names: 


(a) 

banquette  slope. 

(g) 

scarp. 

W 

banquette  tread. 

(h) 

counterscarp, 

(0) 

interior  slope. 

(D) 

ditch, 

(d) 

superior  slope. 

(i) 

interior  slope  of  glacis, 

M 

exterior  slope. 

(h) 

glacis, 

(f) 

berm. 

(t) 

trench. 

The  intersection  of  the  superior  and  of  the  interior 
slopes  is  called  the  interior  crest;  that  of  the  superior 
and  of  the  exterior,  the  exterior  crest.  The  thickness 
of  the  parapet  is  the  horizontal  distance  between  these 
two  crests. 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  a  traverse?  by  an  embras- 
ure? by  the  command  of  a  work  and  its  relief?  by  the 
terreplein  ? 

A.  A  traverse  is  a  bank  of  earth  inside  a  work  to 
protect  some  part  of  it  from  direct  fire.  Usually  they 
are  set  at  right  angles  to  the  interior  crest  of  the  para- 
pet, to  protect  the  latter  from  enfilade.  An  embrasure 
is  a  revetted  opening  in  the  parapet,  through  which 
field  guns  may  fire.      The  command  of  a  work  is  the 


202  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

height  of  its  interior  crest  above  the  ground  on  which 
it  is  constructed  (m,  Figure  2,  Plate  15).  Its  relief  is  the 
height  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  (o,  Figure  2,  Plate 
15).  The  terreplein  is  the  surface  of  the  ground  inside 
the  work.  . 

Q.  How,  if  possible,  should  the  glacis  lie  with  re- 
spect to  the  superior  slope? 

A.  It  should  be  parallel  to  the  superior  slope,  in 
order  to  get  the  best  fire-effect  from  the  position. 

Q.     Point  out  (Plate  15,  Figure  3)  the  elements  of  a 
work  with  respect  to  the  trace. 

A.     With  respect  to  the  traces  of  various  works, 

a    is  a  salient  angle,  c,  c,  c    are  faces, 

rt'    is  a  shoulder  angle,  t?,  rZ,  d    are  flanks, 

1)     is  a  reentrant  angle,  e,  e      is  the  gorge, 

f    is  the  capital. 

Q.     How  are  field  works  classified? 

A.  Field  works  are  classified  with  reference  to 
their  trace,  as : 

(a)  Open — i.  e.,  having  thick  parapets  on  the  ex- 
posed sides,  the  rear  or  gorge  being  open ; 

(h)     Closed,  in  which  the  parapet  is  continuous; 

(c)  Half-closed,  which  differ  from  the  open  in  that 
the  gorge  is  closed  by  obstacles,  stockade  work,  or 
shelter  trenches. 

Open  works  have  the  advantage  over  closed,  of 
affording  greater  freedom  of  movement  to  the  defend- 
ers, and  in  the  event  of  capture,  of  being  exposed  to 
fire  and  assault  from  the  works  in  rear.  Closed  works, 
while  affording  greater  protection  from  assault,  are 
liable  to  have  their  parapets  exposed  to  enfilade  or  to 
reverse  fire;  besides  which,  the  available  interior  space 
is  much  reduced. 


Field  Fortification.  2v  y 

Q.  \Muit  is  the  difference  between  a  fort  and  a 
redoubt  ? 

A.  A  fort  has  reentering  angles,  while  a  redoubt 
has  none.  A  fort  can  thus  sweep  its  own  ditches  by 
fire  from  its  own  parapets,  but  a  redoubt  cannot. 
From  another  point  of  view,  redoubts  are  of  much  sim- 
pler trace  than  forts,  and  are  therefore  more  easily 
built. 

Q.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  "sector  of  fire,'' 
"dead  space." 

A.  By  "sector  of  fire''  is  meant  the  angular  space  in 
front  of  a  work  that  is  swept  by  its  own  fire;  the  limit- 
ing space  is  usually  taken  at  00  degrees,  being  30  de 
grees  on  each  side  of  a  perpendicular  to  the  parapet 
over  which  the  fire  is  delivered.  Such  parts  of  the  ter- 
rain in  front  of  a  parapet  as  cannot  be  reached  by  fire 
from  the  parapet  itself  constitute  what  is  called  "dead 
space,"  or  "undefended  space."  Thus,  in  the  case  of  a 
salient  of  60  degrees,  thej^e  would  evidently  be  a  dead 
space  of  ()0  degrees.     (Plate  10,  Figure  1.) 

In  Figure  2,  Plate  15,  the  angular  space  e,  /,  g,  li,  i,  I- 
is  called  the  "dead  angle,"  because  it  cannot  be  reached 
by  fire  from  the  parapet.  Both  dead  space  and  dead 
angle  diminish  the  offensive  value  of  a  work,  and  have 
to  be  corrected  by  flanking  arrangements  from  neigh- 
boring works,  or  by  such  an  alteration  of  the  trace  of 
the  work  itself  as  to  provide  a  fire  sweeping  the  ditches 
and  the  dead  spaces. 

Q.  How^  may  the  defensive  power  of  field  fortifica- 
tions be  increased? 

A.  By  the  use  of  obstacles.  These  have  for  their 
object  the  holding  of  the  enemy  under  fire  while  check- 
ing his  advance  and  breaking  up  his  formation. 


204  Elements  of  Military  Science. 


Fig.l. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Hg.  5. 


Plate  16. 


Field  Fortification.  205 

Q.     What  conditions  should  all  obstacles  satisfy? 

A.  1.  They  must  be  within  the  effective  zone  of 
the  defenders'  fire,  and  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  offer 
the  least  obstacle  possible  to  the  advance  from  the  side 
of  the  defense. 

2.  They  must  be  concealed  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  view  of  the  assaulting  party,  so  that  this  may  come 
upon  them  as  a  surprise. 

3.  They  must  be  difficult  of  removal  under  fire,  and, 
if  possible,  should  be  of  such  construction  as  will  neces- 
sitate the  use  of  tools  not  usually  carried  by  troops. 

4.  They  should,  if  possible,  be  so  placed  as  to  be 
secure  from  the  fire  of  the  enemy's  artillery,  and  so  con- 
structed that,  if  struck  by  his  projectiles,  they  will 
suffer  small  damage. 

5.  They  must  offer  no  shelter  to  the  enemy. 

Q.     AVhat  form  of  obstacle  is  most  commonly  used? 

A.  The  abatis.  This  consists  of  branches  of  trees 
about  15  feet  long  laid  on  the  ground,  butts  to  the  rear, 
all  small  twigs  being  cut  off,  and  all  large  branches 
pointed  and  interlaced.  The  abatis  should  be  5  feet 
high.  The  branches  are  secured  to  the  ground  by 
forks,  wire,  or  by  logs  laid  over  the  butts  of  the 
branches.     (Plate  16,  Figure  2.) 

The  abatis  most  easy  of  construction  is  that  made 
by  felling  trees  toward  the  enemy,  in  such  manner  as 
to  leave  the  fallen  part  still  attached  to  the  stump,  the 
branches  being  then  pointed  as  already  described. 
(Plate  16,  Figure  3.) 

Q.  What  are  wire  entanglements,  and  how  are 
they  constructed? 

A.  These  are  obstacles  consisting  of  wire  wound 
between  stakes  about  18  inches  long,  driven  into  the 


206  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

ground  about  6  feet  apart.  The  ground  should  not  be 
cleared,  as  bushes,  etc.,  increase  the  delaying  effect  of 
the  entanglement.  The  entanglement  (Plate  10,  Fig- 
ure 4)  just  described  is  called  a  low  wire  entanglement. 
The  high  wire  entanglement  is  constructed  in  the  same 
manner,  except  that  the  stakes  are  at  least  4  feet  long 
and  are  driven  from  6  to  8  feet  apart,  the  wire  leading 
from  the  head  of  the  stake  to  the  foot  of  the  one  diag- 
onally opposite.  The  line  of  stakes  in  front  and  in  rear 
should,  if  possible,  be  finished  otT  like  fencing,  with 
barbed  wire;  the  use  of  this  is  not  recommended  for  the 
interior  cross- work,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  hand- 
ling it,  and  of  the  great  length  of  time  consequently 
necessary.     (Plate  16,  Figure  5.) 

Q.  What  are  palisades,  and  when  are  they  used  to 
most  advantage? 

A.  Palisades  consist  of  rows  of  trunks  of  trees  or 
of  squared  trunks,  8  or  10  feet  high,  planted  close 
together,  and  pointed  on  top.  When  material  is  at 
hand,  ribband  pieces  should  be  spiked  on  the  inside 
along  their  tops  about  a  foot  or  two  below  the  points, 
in  order  to  steady  the  row.  Palisades  are  used  to  great 
advantage  in  the  bottoms  of  ditches  or  to  close  the 
gorges  of  field  works. 


Marches  and  Supply.  207 

CHAPTER  II. 
Marches  and  SurrLY. 

Marches. 

Q.  AN'liy  is  niaiching  so  important  in  a  military 
point  of  view  ? 

A.  Because  the  march  is  the  foundation  of  all 
operations,  and  upon  its  proper  performance  depends 
the  success  of  all  military  undertakings. 

Q.  What  considerations  govern  marches  executed, 
first,  at  a  distance  from  the  enemy;  second,  within 
striking  distance  of  him? 

A.  In  the  first  case,  the  comfort  and  convenience 
of  the  men  must  be  promoted  by  all  possible  means;  in 
the  second,  all  considerations  of  comfort  must  yield  to 
the  necessity  of  securing  one's  self  against  unexpected 
attack,  and  to  that  of  being  constantly  in  readiness  for 
combat. 

Q.  How  should  a  large  force  be  subdivided  for  a 
march  ? 

A.  Into  as  many  columns  as  there  are  roads  ap- 
proximately parallel  to  the  direction  of  march;  these 
columns  should  take  up  as  broad  a  front  as  possible, 
provided  that  they  are  not  too  far  apart  for  easy  com- 
munication, and  for  ready  support  one  of  the  other. 
A  division  composed  of  all  arms  can  with  ease  be 
formed  in  one  column.  In  general,  the  march  of  a  large 
force  in  a  single  column  is  attended  with  disadvan- 
tages, but  in  the  movement  of  the  vast  armies  of  mod- 
ern times,  it  will  seldom  be  possible  to  assign  less  than 
an  army  corps  to  one  road. 


208  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  Upon  what  does  the  number  of  columns  into 
which  a  force  is  divided  for  marching  depend? 

A.  Partly  upon  the  number  of  main  roads  existing 
in  the  zone  of  march,  partly  on  the  distance  of  the  en- 
emy, and  partly  on  the  immediate  object  in  view. 

Q.  On  what  does  the  marching  formation  of  troops 
depend? 

A.  Chiefly  on  the  breadth  of  the  road.  A  main 
road  may  admit  of  infantry  marching  6  or  8  abreast, 
and  of  two  carriages  side  by  side.  Cavalry  and  horse 
artillery  should  not  march  on  the  same  road  as  infant- 
ry, because  it  is  fatiguing  to  horses  to  reduce  their  rate 
to  that  of  the  foot  soldier. 

Q.  What  controls  the  order  of  march  of  the  ele- 
ments of  a  column? 

A.  The  peculiar  conditions  under  which  the  march 
is  made,  the  fundamental  piinciple  in  all  cases  being 
that  these  elements  are  arranged  from  front  to  rear  in 
the  order  in  which  it  is  likely  that  they  will  be  most 
needed.  Hence  cavalry,  as  being  the  most  mobile  ele- 
ment and  the  one  whose  special  function  it  is  to  give 
timely  notice  of  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  should  be 
well  advanced  to  the  front.  The  artillery,  which  be 
gins  the  combat,  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  able  with- 
out difficulty  to  come  speedily  into  action;  the  engi- 
neers should  have  ample  time  to  remove  obstacles  and 
otherwise  to  further  the  march  of  the  trops.  Lastly, 
the  infantry  should  be  so  formed  as  to  assume  combat 
formation  with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  Tactical 
units  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  kept  together,  and  to 
facilitate  the  march  of  large  bodies,  intervals  must  be 
preserved  between  them. 

Q.  What  is  the  average  rate  of  marching  for  the 
three  arms,  the  world  over? 


Marches  and  Supply.  209 

A.  For  infantry,  from  2.75  to  3  miles  an  hour;  for 
field  artillery,  4;  for  cavalry  and  horse  artillery,  5. 
These  rates  assume  that  men,  horses,  and  roads  are  in 
good  condition.  Moreover,  the  size  of  the  column 
affects  the  rate;  other  things  being  equal,  a  small  body 
will  march  faster  than  a  large  body. 

Q.  What  is  the  length  of  an  ordinary  day^s  march 
under  favorable  conditions? 

A.  From  12  to  15  miles.  At  the  outset  of  a  cam- 
paign, or  of  a  prolonged  movement,  marches  should  be, 
if  possible,  very  short,  so  as  to  get  the  men  and  horses 
gradually  into  condition.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
point  out  that,  in  any  case, the  length  as  well  as  the  rate 
of  a  march  is  influenced  by  a  variety  of  conditions 
wholly  independent  of  the  character  of  the  troops  them- 
selves, such  as  the  weather,  the  nature  of  the  country, 
the  goodness  or  badness  of  the  roads,  the  facilities  of 
supply,  etc. 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  a  forced  march? 

A.  One  in  which  an  extraordinary  effort  is  de- 
manded to  carry  out  some  particular  object.  For  large 
bodies  of  troops,  any  march  greater  than  15  miles  a 
day  would  be  a  forced  march.  It  is  useless  to  expect 
troops  not  thoroughly  trained  and  disciplined  to  carry 
out  a  forced  march. 

Q.  What  circumstances  alone  will  justify  a  forced 
march? 

A.  Extreme  necessity,  as  forced  marches  seriously 
injure  the  fighting  powers  of  even  the  best  troops. 

Q.     Is  continuous  marching  possible? 

A.  Xo;  hence  all  columns  on  the  march  halt  for 
a  few  minutes,  generally  ten,  each  hour,  and  for  a 
longer  time  once  or  twice  during  a  longer  march.     In 

_]4_ 


210  Elemetits  of  Military  Science. 

prolonged  movements,  it  is  found  necessary  to  halt 
for  a  whole  da}^  at  intervals,  in  order  to  recruit  the 
strength  of  men  and  of  horses,  and  to  repair  material. 

Q.  What  considerations  affect  the  choice  of  a  spot 
for  a  long  halt? 

A.  The  season  of  the  year,  and  the  weather. 
Shelter  must  be  sought  from  wind  and  rain,  and,  in  any 
case,  an  ample  supply  of  water  must  be  readily  ac- 
cessible. 

Q.  How  should  troops  on  the  march  be  quartered 
at  night? 

A.  If  possible,  in  cantonments;  that  is,  under  roof. 
Under  certain  circumstances  a  bivouac  in  the  open  is 
unavoidable,  but  the  proverb  always  holds  that  a  bad 
cantonment  is  better  than  the  best  bivouac.  A  roof 
not  only  protects  from  wind  and  rain,  but  enables  the 
men  to  cook  and  to  eat  in  comfort. 

Q.  How  may  the  fatigues  of  a  march  be  greatly 
lessened? 

A.  By  requiring  all  the  elements  of  one  and  the 
same  column  to  preserve  a.  uniform  pace,  and  by  dis- 
couraging all  double  time  of  men  and  trotting  of  horses 
to  recover  lost  distances.  The  comfort  of  the  men  is 
also  greatly  increased  by  paying  assiduous  attention  to 
apparently  minor  details,  such  as  regularity  of  meals, 
abundance  of  water,  modification  of  the  march  forma- 
tion according  to  the  weather  and  the  season  of  the 
year,  the  condition  of  clothing  and  of  foot-gear,  and  by 
taking  care  that  each  man  and  horse  has  a  good  night's 
rest. 

Q.     Are  night  marches  ever  necessary? 

A.  They  may  be  made  necessary  by  the  need  of  ex- 
ceptional haste,  or  by  the  operations  of  the  enemy,  or 


Marches  and  Supply.  211 

hy  Llie  exressive  heat  of  the  day.  Under  a  full  or 
nearly  full  moon,  troops  can  march  almost  as  fast  as 
by  day;  but,  even  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, night  marches  are  usually  fatiguing,  and 
should  not  be  undertaken  unless  fully  justified  by  the 
circumstances  of  the  case. 

Supply. 

Q.  In  what  two  general  ways  may  an  army  be  sub- 
sisted in  war? 

A.  First,  the  army  may  live  upon  the  country,  sup- 
plies being  obtained  by  requisition  or  by  purchase,  or 
by  both ;  second,  the  army  may  be  subsisted  by  stores, 
etc.,  puslied  forward  from  the  rear.  In  practice,  both 
of  these  methods  are  usually  followed. 

Q-  luto  what  two  branches  is  the  subject  of  sup- 
plying modern  armies  from  the  rear  divided? 

A.  Into,  first,  the  forwarding  of  stores,  rations, 
forage,  etc.,  and  their  collection  in  large  magazines  and 
depots;  and,  second,  the  distribution  of  these  stores 
from  these  magazines  to  the  armj^  directly.  These  two 
services  are,  or  ought  to  be,  perfectly  distinct. 

Q.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  each  of  these 
two  services? 

A.  The  first  may  be  semi-civilian  in  character. 
It  makes  use  of  any  and  all  means  of  transportation,  as 
rail,  wagon,  canals,  rivers,  and  keeps  its  most  advanced 
dfpnts  or  stores  within  one  or  two  marches  of  the  army. 
The  general  rule  is  that  it  should  follow  the  move- 
ments of  the  army,  keeping  as  close  to  it  as  is  consist- 
ent with  the  proper  performance  of  its  duties.  The 
second,  or  transportation  department  distributing 
directly  to  the  army,  must  be  under  perfect  military 
control.  It  is  in  contact  with  the  army  in  front  and 
with  the  supply  service  in  rear. 


212  Elements  of  Military  Science. 

Q.  What  further  element  is  needed  to  complete 
the  distribution  of  supplies  to  the  regiments  and  other 
subordinate  units? 

A.  A  train  of  wagons  to  take  the  stores  and  sup- 
plies generally  as  they  are  brought  to  the  army,  and 
carry  them  to  the  respective  regiments. 

Q.  How  is  the  supply  service  organized  in  the 
United  States  Army? 

A.  In  our  army,  this  service  is  performed  by  the 
Commissary  and  by  the  Quartermaster  Departments, 
respectively.  The  first  purchases  the  supplies,  and  the 
second  is  responsible  for  their  transportation  to  the 
armies  in  the  field.  These,  as  we  have  seen,  have  as 
part  of  their  organization  wagon  trains  by  which  sup- 
plies are  brought  to  the  armies  directly;  these  wagon 
trains,  however,  being  operated  by  the  Quartermaster 
Department  under  the  orders  of  the  general  command- 
ing the  unit  to  which  they  belong. 


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